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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Aug 25.
Published in final edited form as: Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2025 Oct 3;34(10):1730–1739. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-25-0465

Table 4.

Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the association between an interquartile range increase in the average normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and childhood cancer risk, per pregnancy period, with adjustment for exposure to PM2.5 (high/low).

First Trimester (IQR: 0.32) a Second Trimester (IQR: 0.29) b Third Trimester (IQR: 0.33) c Full Pregnancy (IQR: 0.11) d
Cancer type N, 5059 OR 95% CI FDR P OR 95% CI FDR P OR 95% CI FDR P OR 95% CI FDR P
All cancer combined 1231 1.11 0.97 1.26 0.69 0.97 0.88 1.08 0.86 0.98 0.86 1.11 0.99 1.00 0.92 1.09 0.99
Lymphoid leukemias 297 1.14 0.90 1.45 0.69 0.98 0.81 1.18 0.86 1.03 0.81 1.32 0.99 1.03 0.87 1.22 0.99
 Mature B-cell leukemias 263 1.16 0.90 1.50 0.69 0.98 0.80 1.19 0.86 0.98 0.76 1.28 0.99 1.03 0.86 1.23 0.99
 Mature T-cell leukemias 20 0.90 0.36 2.25 0.87 1.32 0.64 2.72 0.74 2.01 0.79 5.12 0.88 1.20 0.63 2.27 0.99
  <1 year 17 1.52 0.59 3.94 0.69 0.70 0.33 1.49 0.73 1.03 0.39 2.70 0.99 0.88 0.45 1.71 0.99
  1–5 years 230 1.12 0.85 1.46 0.73 1.04 0.84 1.29 0.86 1.08 0.82 1.42 0.99 1.07 0.88 1.29 0.99
Acute myeloid leukemias 58 1.06 0.62 1.79 0.87 1.06 0.69 1.63 0.86 0.77 0.45 1.32 0.88 0.98 0.68 1.42 0.99
Other leukemias e 31 0.88 0.43 1.81 0.87 0.53 0.29 0.97 0.32 0.91 0.44 1.89 0.99 0.63 0.38 1.03 0.82
Hodgkin lymphomas 16 0.73 0.25 2.09 0.87 0.63 0.26 1.50 0.73 0.57 0.21 1.60 0.88 0.57 0.27 1.17 0.90
Non-Hodgkin lymphomas 27 1.62 0.74 3.58 0.69 0.99 0.53 1.84 0.97 1.72 0.79 3.73 0.88 1.42 0.83 2.44 0.90
Burkitt lymphoma 18 0.43 0.16 1.14 0.69 0.65 0.29 1.44 0.73 0.99 0.37 2.64 0.99 0.67 0.34 1.33 0.90
Miscellaneous lymphoreticular neoplasms 52 1.08 0.62 1.87 0.87 1.11 0.72 1.73 0.86 0.72 0.41 1.27 0.88 0.99 0.67 1.46 0.99
Ependymomas 40 1.18 0.62 2.23 0.87 0.91 0.54 1.51 0.86 0.77 0.40 1.48 0.92 0.89 0.57 1.39 0.99
Astrocytomas 130 1.19 0.83 1.70 0.69 0.71 0.53 0.95 0.25 1.08 0.75 1.54 0.99 0.94 0.73 1.21 0.99
Medulloblastomas 36 1.64 0.83 3.24 0.69 0.75 0.44 1.27 0.73 1.00 0.51 1.94 0.99 0.99 0.62 1.58 0.99
Other intracranial and intraspinal embryonal f 19 1.65 0.64 4.23 0.69 0.67 0.32 1.40 0.73 0.85 0.33 2.15 0.99 0.93 0.49 1.77 0.99
Other CNS cancer types g 55 1.04 0.61 1.79 0.89 1.19 0.77 1.84 0.74 0.79 0.45 1.37 0.89 1.05 0.72 1.54 0.99
Neuroblastoma and other peripheral nervous cell tumors 146 1.26 0.90 1.75 0.69 1.14 0.88 1.48 0.73 1.44 1.03 2.03 0.87 1.15 0.91 1.46 0.90
Retinoblastoma 43 1.47 0.80 2.73 0.69 1.06 0.65 1.73 0.86 0.81 0.44 1.52 0.99 1.03 0.67 1.59 0.99
Renal tumors 107 1.19 0.80 1.77 0.69 1.52 1.11 2.08 0.21 0.96 0.64 1.43 0.99 1.30 0.98 1.72 0.82
Hepatic tumors 24 1.09 0.49 2.45 0.87 0.58 0.29 1.17 0.64 0.67 0.29 1.57 0.88 0.68 0.38 1.20 0.90
Malignant bone tumors 19 0.61 0.23 1.60 0.69 1.62 0.73 3.61 0.73 0.47 0.18 1.20 0.88 0.85 0.44 1.64 0.99
Soft tissue and other extraosseous sarcomas 54 0.92 0.53 1.59 0.87 1.21 0.78 1.89 0.74 0.77 0.44 1.35 0.88 0.99 0.68 1.46 0.99
Germ cell tumors, trophoblastic tumors and neoplasms of gonads 40 1.10 0.59 2.06 0.87 0.66 0.40 1.10 0.64 1.01 0.53 1.91 0.99 0.85 0.55 1.32 0.99
Other malignant epithelial neoplasms and malignant melanomas 19 0.34 0.13 0.91 0.69 1.14 0.53 2.47 0.86 1.60 0.60 4.27 0.88 0.98 0.51 1.87 0.99

Abbreviation: PM2.5: Particulate matter <2.5 mg/m3; NDVI: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index; FDR: False Discovery Rate.

a

Adjusted for trimester 1 NDVI for each control IQR increase from trimester 1, maternal age at delivery, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal education, child sex, year of birth, trimester 2 NDVI (high/low), trimester 3 NDVI (high/low), trimester 1 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 2 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 3 PM2.5 (high/low).

b

Adjusted for trimester 2 NDVI for each control IQR increase from trimester 2, maternal age at delivery, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal education, child sex, year of birth, trimester 1 NDVI (high/low), trimester 3 NDVI (high/low), trimester 1 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 2 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 3 PM2.5 (high/low).

c

Adjusted for trimester 3 NDVI for each control IQR increase from trimester 3, maternal age at delivery, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal education, child sex, year of birth, trimester 1 NDVI (high/low), trimester 2 NDVI (high/low), trimester 1 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 2 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 3 PM2.5 (high/low).

d

Adjusted for NDVI for each control IQR increase from full pregnancy, maternal age at delivery, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal education, child sex, year of birth, trimester 1 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 2 PM2.5 (high/low), trimester 3 PM2.5 (high/low).

e

Chronic myeloproliferative diseases, Myelodysplastic syndrome, Unspecified and other specified leukemias.

f

Primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET), Medulloepithelioma, Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor.

g

Other gliomas, Other specified intracranial and intraspinal neoplasms, unspecified intracranial and intraspinal neoplasms.