Table 1.
Recent advances and potential applications of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) in osteoporosis and osteoarthritis.
| Author (Year) | Plant source | Disease model | Key findings | Proposed mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Section 4: Osteoporosis | Osteoporosis | |||
| Seo et al. (2023) | Ginseng | OP | Inhibited RANKL-mediated osteoclast differentiation; reduced bone loss in mice | Contains ginsenosides Rb1/Rg1; suppresses RANKL signaling pathways |
| Park et al. (2023) | Plum | OP | Enhanced osteoblast differentiation; suppressed osteoclast activation | Promotes BMP-2 expression and osteogenic markers (RUNX2, ALP, OCN) |
| Sim et al. (2023) | Apple | OP | Increased osteoblast differentiation and mineralization | Upregulated BMP-2/Smad1 pathway |
| Zhao et al. (2024) | Rhizoma Drynariae | OP | Reversed osteoporosis by enhancing osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs | Targeted ERα signaling pathway |
| Zhan et al. (2023) | Pueraria lobata (kudzu) | OP | Alleviated osteoporosis by enhancing autophagy in BMSCs | Activated autophagy via AMPK/mTOR pathway |
| Gupta et al. (2023) | Cissus quadrangularis | OP | Promoted osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs | Increased ALP activity and calcium deposition |
| Cao et al.(2024) | Morinda | OP | enhance proliferation of murine MC3T3-E1 cells | stimulate osteogenic activity, thereby promoting bone formation |
| Section 5: Osteoarthritis | Osteoarthritis | |||
| Kim (2023) | Ginseng | OA | Reduced TNF-α and IL-6 levels; anti-inflammatory effects | Inhibited NF-κB activation |
| Zhu et al. (2023) | Garlic | OA/Colitis | Protected cartilage by modulating immune response | Suppressed TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway |
| Yıldırım et al. (2024) | Tomato | OA | Enhanced chondrocyte markers (ACAN, SOX9, COMP); promoted cartilage regeneration | Delivered growth factors to chondrocytes |
| Chen et al. (2022) | Spinach | OA | Improved cartilage homeostasis under light exposure | Increased ATP/NADPH levels; enhanced chondrocyte anabolism |
| Qiu et al. (2020) | Curcumin (turmeric) | OA | Attenuated cartilage degradation and inflammation | Modulated miR-124/NF-κB and miR-143/ROCK1/TLR9 pathways |
| Perut et al. (2021) | Strawberry | OA | Protected chondrocytes from oxidative stress | Reduced ROS production; enhanced antioxidant defenses |
This table compiles key studies evaluating PELNs from diverse plant sources in preclinical models of osteoporosis (OP) and osteoarthritis (OA). It highlights disease models, major findings, and proposed molecular mechanisms, including modulation of osteoblast/osteoclast activity, BMSC differentiation, anti-inflammatory effects, and chondrocyte regeneration. Studies are categorized by disease focus (OP or OA) and include references to experimental outcomes and signaling pathways.