. 2025 Aug 11;15(35):28413–28427. doi: 10.1039/d5ra03649f

Table 2. Summary of PVDF-based membranes for wastewater treatment.

Membrane	Fabrication method	Water permeance (L m⁻² h per bar)	Pollutant type	FRR (%)	Rejection (%)	References
ZIF-9-III@PVDF	Blending	14.3	O/W emulsion heptane	—	99	67
1-Hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis (tri-fluoromethylsulfonyl) imide ionic liquid (IL)@Ti₃C₂T_x/PVDF	Blending	153	BSA	85	96	45
Poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate-grafted SiO₂ (SiO₂-g-PEGMA) nanoparticles (NPs)/PVDF	Blending	100	O/W emulsion crude oil, BSA	95	89	68
Sodium alginates@Ti₃C₂T_x/commercial PVDF	Vacuum filtration	887	O/W emulsion kerosene, crude oil, hexane, heptane and petroleum ether	—	99.4	44
Na-montmorillonite (Na⁺ MMT)/PVDF	Blending	391.8	O/W emulsion epoxy soybean oil	98.1	98	69
UiO-66-NH₂ with perfluoroalkyl polyethoxy acetic acid (FPEOAA)/PVDF	Grafting	1403.5	O/W emulsion petroleum ether, soybean oil, n-hexadecane and dichloromethane	93	99	28
Sodium polyacrylate (PAAS)/PVDF	Blending	350	O/W emulsion soybean oil, diesel oil and crude oil	86.5	99.97	70
Ti₃C₂T_x/PVDF	Blending	1242	O/W emulsion crude oil	92	99	This work