Table 1.
Participant Demographics and Clinical Measures
| Participant Characteristic | RS-only (N = 137) |
RS+TL (N = 101) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PSZ (n = 82) | HC (n = 55) | Effect Sizea | PSZ (n = 55) | HC (n = 46) | Effect Sizea | |
| Age, Years (SD) | 31.9 (11.9) | 30.7 (10.2) | −0.106 | 32.2 (11.8) | 30.0 (9.9) | −0.206 |
| Biological Sex, Female (%) | 30 (36.6%) | 18.0 (32.7%) | 0.040 | 18.0 (32.7%) | 14.0 (30.4%) | 0.025 |
| Ethnicity, Hispanic (%) | 20.0 (24.4%) | 15.0 (27.3%) | 0.197 | 13.0 (23.6%) | 14.0 (30.4%) | 0.126 |
| Race | 0.200 | 0.267 | ||||
| African American (%) | 28.0 (34.1%) | 22.0 (40.0%) | 19.0 (34.5%) | 17.0 (37.0%) | ||
| Asian (%) | 6.0 (7.3%) | 5.0 (9.1%) | 3.0 (5.5%) | 5.0 (10.9%) | ||
| Caucasian (%) | 28.0 (34.1%) | 19.0 (34.5%) | 18.0 (32.7%) | 15.0 (32.6%) | ||
| More than one (%) | 13.0 (15.9%) | 2.0 (3.6%) | 11.0 (20.0%) | 2.0 (4.3%) | ||
| Other (%) | 7.0 (8.5%) | 7.0 (12.7%) | 4.0 (7.3%) | 7.0 (15.2%) | ||
| Handednessb | 0.122 | 0.122 | ||||
| Ambidextrous (%) | 9.0 (11.0%) | 3.0 (5.5%) | 6.0 (10.9%) | 2.0 (4.3%) | ||
| Left (%) | 2.0 (2.4%) | 3.0 (5.5%) | 2.0 (3.6%) | 2.0 (4.3%) | ||
| Right (%) | 71.0 (86.6%) | 49.0 (89.1%) | 47.0 (85.5%) | 42.0 (91.3%) | ||
| Smokerc,d (%) | 28.0 (34.1%) | 3.0 (5.5%) | −0.440 | 19.0 (35.2%) | 3.0 (6.5%) | −0.522 |
| Parental SESe,f (SD) | 38.2 (14.3) | 44.0 (10.7) | 0.348 | 41.0 (13.4) | 43.9 (11.5) | 0.228 |
| PANSS Totalg (SD) | 69.9 (17.5) | 34.9 (6.3) | −2.459 | 70.0 (17.1) | 35.0 (6.7) | −2.563 |
| PANSS Generalg (SD) | 35.9 (9.6) | 18.3 (3.6) | −2.257 | 35.9 (9.7) | 18.4 (3.8) | −2.276 |
| PANSS Negativeg (SD) | 15.5 (6.0) | 9.2 (3.1) | −1.249 | 15.5 (5.4) | 9.2 (3.2) | −1.362 |
| PANSS Positiveg (SD) | 18.5 (6.1) | 7.4 (0.9) | −2.317 | 18.6 (6.5) | 7.4 (0.9) | −2.275 |
| PSYRATS Totalh (SD) | 25.0 (19.7) | 2.1 (10.6) | −1.279 | 24.3 (19.2) | 2.5 (11.5) | −1.226 |
| PSYRATS AHi (SD) | 12.8 (14.8) | 1.3 (6.9) | −0.853 | 11.8 (14.4) | 1.6 (7.5) | −0.796 |
| PSYRATS Dh (SD) | 11.5 (7.8) | 0.7 (3.7) | −1.530 | 11.0 (7.4) | 0.9 (7.5) | −1.423 |
| SANSj (SD) | 7.3 (5.8) | 2.0 (3.2) | −0.998 | 9.6 (4.5) | 2.2 (3.4) | −1.729 |
| CDRSk (SD) | 4.4 (4.4) | 0.3 (1.0) | −1.1414 | 4.7 (4.6) | 0.3 (1.0) | −1.199 |
| AP Medication-Naïvel (%) | 31 (37.8%) | — | — | 19 (34.6%) | — | — |
Effect sizes for continuous variables were calculated with Hedges’s g; effect sizes for dichotomous variables were calculated with Cramér’s V.
Handedness was reported using the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory.
Smoking status defined as current daily nicotine use.
Smoking status was unavailable for 2 participants (1 PSZ and 1 HC) from the RS-only sample and 1 PSZ from the RS+TL sample.
Mean Parental SES was reported using the Hollingshead Four Factor Index Scale of Socioeconomic Status scale.
Parental SES data were unavailable for 13 participants (10 PSZ and 3 HC) from the RS-only sample and 9 participants (6 PSZ and 3 HC) from the RS+TL sample.
PANSS data were unavailable for 8 participants (4 PSZ and 4 HC) from the RS-only sample and 7 participants (3 PSZ and 4 HC) from the RS+TL sample.
PSYRATS Total and PSYRATS D data were unavailable for 42 participants (13 PSZ and 29 HC) in the RS-only sample and 34 participants (10 PSZ and 24 HC) in the RS+TL sample.
PSYRATS AH data were unavailable for 36 participants (7 PSZ and 29 HC) in the RS-only sample and 28 participants (4 PSZ and 24 HC) in the RS+TL sample.
SANS data were unavailable for 40 participants (11 PSZ and 29 HC) in the RS-only sample and 31 participants (7 PSZ and 24 HC) in the RS+TL sample.
CDRS data were unavailable for 22 participants (10 PSZ and 12 HC) in the RS-only sample and 15 participants (5 PSZ and 10 HC) in the RL+TL sample.
All PSZ in this study were antipsychotic medication-free, defined as no exposure to oral antipsychotic medication for at least 3 weeks, and no exposure to intramuscular antipsychotic medications for at least 6 months, prior to participation in the study. PSZ were additionally considered to be antipsychotic medication-naïve if they had fewer than 2 weeks of cumulative lifetime exposure to antipsychotic medications.
Abbreviations: PSZ: People with Schizophrenia; HC: Healthy Controls; SD: standard deviation; SES: socioeconomic status; PANSS: Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale; PSYRATS: Psychotic Symptom Rating Scales; PSYRATS AH: PSYRATS Auditory Hallucinations; PSYRATS D: PSYRATS Delusions; SANS: Scales for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms; CDRS: Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia. AP: Antipsychotic.