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. 2025 Aug 25;27:e64862. doi: 10.2196/64862

Table 1. Study participant characteristics of the included articles per tool category.

Total, n Cognitive status Age (mean, SD) or age group (%) Sex, % female Ethnicity (%) Educational level (%, n, or mean, SD) Digital literacy
Primary prevention
 Aalbers et al (2016); the Netherlands [37]

  • Goal-setting group (n=1212)

  • Nongoal setting group (n=1093)

 Healthy

  • Goal-setting group: 52.3 (12.2)

  • Nongoal setting group: 51.3 (13.7)

  • Goal-setting group: 71.1%

  • Nongoal setting group: 63%

 N/Aa

  • Goal setting: secondary or lower (32.3%); vocational degree (44.3%); university degree (23.4%)

  • No goal setting: secondary or lower (37.3%); vocational degree (39.5%); university degree (23.3%)

 N/A
 Anstey et al (2020); Australia [40]

  • BBL-GPb (n=42)

  • LMPc (n=41)

  • ACd (n=42)

 Healthy

  • BBL-GP: 51.1 (14.2)

  • LMP: 51.4 (11.7)

  • AC: 49.9 (14)

  • BBL-GP: 67%

  • LMP: 66%

  • AC: 74%

 N/A Years of education:

  • BBL-GP: 15.5 (4.5)

  • LMP: 16.4 (4.3)

  • AC: 16.1 (4.2)

 N/A
 Bird et al (2021); United Kingdom [44] Participants (n=4826) Healthy

  • Age 50‐55 (33.7%)

  • Age 56‐60 (32.3%)

  • Age 61‐65 (28.8%)

 73%

  • White (86.7%)

  • Asian (1.1%)

  • African (0.4%)

  • Other (6%)

  • Undergraduate (26.2%)

  • Postgraduate (22.7%)

  • Diploma (16.4%)

  • A-level (10.3%)

  • General Certificate of Secondary Education (12.5%)

  • Trade certificate (5.8%)

  • Other (1.2%)

 N/A
 Bott et al (2018); United States [39] Participants (n=82) SCDe 64 (4) 24%

  • African American (6%)

  • Asian (1%)

  • White (88%)

  • Hispanic (4%)

  • Other (1%)

  • High school (4%)

  • Vocational training (2%)

  • Some college, no degree (27%)

  • Bachelor’s degree (35%)

  • Graduate degree (23%)

  • Doctorate (9%)

 Inclusion criteria:

  • Ability to make and receive phone calls

  • Send and receive text messages

  • Access desktop computer and video teleconferencing
 Corbett et al (2015); United States [36]

  • ReaCTf (n=2557)

  • GCTg (n=2432)

  • Control (n=1753)

 Healthy

  • ReaCT: 58.5 (6.5)

  • GCT: 59.1 (6.4)

  • Control: 59.1 (6.6)

  • ReaCT: 68%

  • GCT: 68%

  • Control: 62%

  • ReaCT: White (96.9%)

  • GCT: White (97%)

  • Control: White (97.4%)

  • ReaCT university: 51.7%

  • GCT university: 50.6%

  • Control university: 47.4%

 Experienced as all contact was via email/online
 Eun et al (2022); South Korea [45] Participants (n=37) Healthy

  • Under 70 (17.9%)

  • 70‐74 (35.9%)

  • 75‐79 (30.8%)

  • Over 80 (15.4%)

 87.2% N/A N/A N/A
 Glenn et al (2019); Japan [38] Healthy adults (n=242) Healthy

  • Females: 51 (7.9)

  • Males: 51 (1)

 51.7% N/A (Japanese language) N/A N/A
 Isaacson et al (2014); United States [43] Participants (n=100) Healthy

  • 30s (5.5%)

  • 40s (12.2%)

  • 50s (43.3%)

  • 60s (21.1%)

  • 70s (16.6%)

  • 80s (3.3%)

  • 90s (1.1%)

 79.8% N/A

  • High school/secondary (40.2%)

  • Postgraduate (24.1%)

  • Associate degree (18.4%)

  • Bachelor (16.1%)

 N/A
 Oh et al (2018); South-Korea [46]

  • SMARTh (n=18)

  • AC (n=19)

  • Wait-list (n=16)

 SCD

  • SMART: 59.3 (5.1)

  • AC: 58.8 (5)

  • Wait-list: 58.8 (5)

  • SMART: 50%

  • AC: 53%

  • Wait-list: 56%

 Korean (100%) Education in years:

  • SMART: 14.2 (3.7)

  • AC: 14.2 (2.3)

  • Wait-list: 13.4 (3.6)

 N/A
 Palac et al (2019); United States [47]

  • Intervention (n=14)

  • Control (n=13)

 SCD

  • Intervention: 49.4 (5.1)

  • Control: 52.2 (4.7)

  • Intervention: 85.7%

  • Control: 69.2%

  • Intervention: White (64.3%); African American (21.4%); Asian (7.1%)

  • Control: White (69.2%); African American (15.4%); Asian (7.7%); American Indian (7.7%)

 College degree:

  • Intervention (85.7%)

  • Control (76.9%)

 N/A
 Petrella et al (2023); United States [48]

  • Intervention (n=39)

  • Control (n=48)

 SCD

  • Intervention: 69.3 (8.1)

  • Control: 70.8 (8.7)

  • Total: 58%

  • Intervention: 71.8%

  • Control: 45.8%

 African American (30%) Years of education:

  • Intervention: 16.74 (3.03)

  • Control: 17.06 (3.19)

 N/A
 Tedim Cruz et al (2014); Portugal [49] Participants (n=45) SCD 50.7 (17) 35.6% N/A Years of education: 7.8 (4.9) N/A
 Vanoh et al (2018); Malaysia [34] Healthy older people (n=30) Healthy 65.1 (3.8) 60%

  • Malay (30%)

  • Indian (30%)

  • Chinese (30%)

  • College/university (76.7%)

  • Secondary education (20%)

  • Incomplete secondary education (3.3%)

 Yes (76.7%), no (20%)
 Wesselman et al (2020); the Netherlands and Germany [41] SCD (n=137) SCD 65.1 (8.6) 57% N/A Years of education: 11.3 (1.9) All have a smartphone, tablet, or computer
Secondary prevention
 Bahar-Fuchs et al (2017); Australia [50]

  • MCIi (n=9)

  • MrNPSj (n=11)

  • 25 MCI+ (21 intervention CCTk vs 23 active control)

  • MCI

  • MrNPS

  • CCT: 74 (8)

  • AC: 75.3 (5.8)

  • MCI: 74.7 (6.8)

  • MrNPS: 71.5 (7.4)

  • MCI+: 76.0 (6.3)

  • 63.3%

 N/A

  • CCT: 14.4 (3.2)

  • AC: 14.5 (3)

  • MCI: 14.8 (2.6)

  • MrNPS: 13.7 (2.6)

  • MCI+: 14.7 (3.4)

  • N/A
 Djabelkhir et al (2017); France [51]

  • MCI in CCEl group (n=10)

  • MCI in CCSm group (n=10)

 MCI

  • CCE: 78.2 (7)

  • CCS: 75.2 (6.4)

  • CCE: 60%

  • CCS:70%

 N/A

  • CCE college or higher: 44.4%

  • CCS college or higher: 60%

 N/A
 Hartin et al (2016); United States [35]

  • Intervention (n=102)

  • Control (n=42)

 No dementia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
 Hassandra et al (2021); Greece [52] Study 1:

  • MCI (n=16)

  • SCD (n=4)


Study 2:

  • Undergraduates (n=30)

  • MCI (n=27)

  • Healthy

  • SCD

  • MCI

 Study 1

  • MCI/SCD: 76.3 (5)


Study 2:

  • Undergraduates: 20.9 (1.2)

  • MCI: 73.2 (9.3)

 Study 1:

  • MCI/SCD (75%)


Study 2:

  • Undergraduates (53.3%)

  • MCI (70.1%)

 N/A

  • Study 1:

  • MCI/SCD mean years of education 11.35 (5.76)

  • Study 2:

  • Undergraduates (high level of education: 100%)

  • MCI (primary: 31%; secondary: 42%; higher: 27%)

  •  Study 1:

  • MCI/SCD (phone user never: 4%; computer use never: 44%; gaming use never: 55%)

  •  Study 2:

  • Undergraduates (phone user never: 0%; computer use never: 20%; gaming use never: 73%)
 Hill et al (2018); United States [53] Participants (n=12) MCI 79 (4.2) 58% White (92%) Years of education:

  • High school (8%)

  • Some college, no degree (25%)

  • Bachelor or higher (50%)

 N/A
 Hughes et al (2014); United States [54]

  • Intervention (n=10)

  • Control (n=10)

 MCI

  • Intervention: 78.5 (7.1)

  • Control: 76.2 (4.3)

  • Intervention: 80%

  • Control: 60%

  • Intervention: White (70%)

  • Control: White (90%)

  • Intervention, years of education: 13.8 (2.4)

  • Control, years of education: 13.1 (1.9)

 All had experience with Nintendo Wii
 Infarinato et al (2020); Italy [55] MCI (n=15) MCI 71.9 (0.9)     53% N/A N/A N/A
 Lin et al (2022); Taiwan [56]

  • Intervention (n=8)

  • Control (n=8)

 MCI

  • Intervention: 79.8 (4.9)

  • Control: 77.8 (6.7)

  • Intervention: 62.5%

  • Control: 62.5%

 N/A

  • Intervention: >junior high (50%)

  • Control: >junior high (25%)

 N/A
 Savulich et al (2017); United Kingdom [57]

  • Intervention group aMCIn (n=21)

  • Control group aMCI (n=21)

 MCI

  • Intervention group: 75.2 (7.4)

  • Control group: 76.9 (8.3)

  • Intervention group: 47%

  • Control: 33%

 N/A

  • Intervention, age left education: 15.9 (1.3)

  • Control, age left education: 16.0 (2.1)

  Internet use (h/wk):

  • Intervention: 2.2 (6.6)

  • Control: 2.3 (4.5)
 Smith et al (2020); United States [58]

  • Healthy older adults (n=5)

  • Older adults with MCI (n=5)

  • Healthy

  • MCI

  • Total: 74

  • Healthy older adult: 73

  • MCI: 75

 30% N/A N/A N/A
 Zajaç-Lamparska et al (2019), Poland [59]

  • Older adults without dementia (n=72)

  • Older adults with mild dementia (n=27)

  • Healthy older adults

  • Mild dementia (Mini Mental State Examination: 22.33, 1.21)

  • Older adults without dementia: 67.9 (5.8)

  • Older adults with mild dementia: 72 (7.4)

  • Older adults without dementia (75%)

  • Older adults with mild dementia (81.5%)

 N/A Years of education:

  • Older adults without dementia: 13.6 (3.9)

  • Older adults with mild dementia: 12.6 (3.3)

 N/A
Daily life support
 Baric et al (2019); Sweden [42] Participants (n=20) Healthy 73.7 (5.2)     45% N/A Years of education:

  • 6‐9 (35%)

  • 12‐14 (35%)

  • University (40%)

  • Daily/weekly computer use (55%)

  • Daily/weekly mobile phone use (85%)
 Beentjes et al (2023); the Netherlands [60]

  • Experimental group (n=28)

  • Control (n=31)

 MCI

  • Experimental: 72.7 (7.8)

  • Control: 71.7 (9.6)

  • Experimental (43%)

  • Control (35%)

 N/A

  • Experimental: primary (0%), secondary vocational (28%), secondary academic (4%), further education vocational (25%), high education vocational (29%), high education academic (14%)

  • Control: primary (3%), secondary vocational (19%), secondary academic (3%), further education vocational (29%), high education vocational (39%), high education academic (6%)

  Never:

  • Experimental (46%)

  • Control (52%)
 Chudoba et al (2020); United States [61] Case reports (n=3) SCD

  • Case 1: 69

  • Case 2: 39

  • Case 3: 72

  • Case 1 (female)

  • Case 2 (female)

  • Case 3 (female)

 N/A

  • Case 1 (14 years of education)

  • Case 2 (13 years of education)

  • Case 3 (13 years of education)

 N/A
 Cortellessa et al (2021); Spain and Romania [62] Participants (n=90) with informal carers and health care professionals Cognitive impairment (23‐27 Mini-Mental State Examination) or self-perceived cognitive impairment or caregivers’ perception of cognitive impairment that has been present for more than 6 months N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
 Piculell et al (2021); Sweden [63] Participants (n=16) Cognitive impairment (Mini-Mental State Examination score ranging from 20‐26) 71‐100 years 25% N/A

  • Elementary (n=6)

  • Secondary (n=2)

  • Senior high school (n=5)

  • University (n=2)

 N/A
 Schmitter-Edgecombe et al (2022); United States [64] Adults who met criteria for amnestic MCI (n=32) MCI

  • Partnered: 74.4 (5.6)

  • EMMAo: only 70.6 (6.3)

  • 71% partnered

  • 33% EMMA only

 N/A

  • Partnered: 17.1 (2.2)

  • EMMA only: 15.6 (2)

  Technology comfort:

  • Partnered: 3.6 (1.0)

  • EMMA only: 4.7 (1.2)
 Scullin et al (2022); United States [65]

  • Reminder app (n=23)

  • Digital recorder app (n=25)

 MCI

  • Reminder app: 73.2 (6)

  • Digital recorder app: 76.4 (8)

  • Reminder app (52%)

  • Digital recorder app (32%)

 Non-Caucasian:

  • Reminder app (22%)

  • Digital recorder app (12%)

 Years of education:

  • Reminder app: 14.5 (2.5)

  • Digital recorder app: 14.8 (2.4)

 N/A
 Quintana et al (2020); Sweden and Spain [66] Sweden:

  • MCI (n=9)

  • Carers (n=9)


Spain:

  • MCI (n=10)

  • Carers (n=10)

 MCI Sweden:

  • MCI: 77

  • Carers: 68


Spain:

  • MCI: 80

  • Carers: 64

 Sweden:

  • MCI (33%)

  • Carers (45%)


Spain:

  • MCI (50%)

  • Carers (30%)

 N/A N/A Smartphone/tablet use every day:
Sweden:

  • people with MCI (55%)


Spain:

  • people with MCI (70%)
Self-administered screening
 Bonnechère et al (2018); Belgium [67]

  • Young (n=20)

  • Healthy older adults (n=27)

  • Cognitive impairment (n=29)

  • Cognitive impairment (Mini-Mental State Examination=20‐24)

  • Healthy

  • Young: 26 (3)

  • Healthy older adults: 47 (10)

  • Cognitive impairment: 80 (12)

 N/A N/A N/A N/A
 Brandt et al (2014); United States [68] Study 1: older adults (n=116)

Study 2: adult dementia (n=50); nondementia (n=44)

  • Healthy

  • MCI

  • ADp

  • Mood disorder

  • Other psychiatric disease

  • Other type of dementia

 Study 1:

  • Older adults: 78.4 (8.4)

  • Control: 73.2 (8.5)


Study 2:

  • Dementia: 78.24 (8.7)

  • Nondementia: 74.8 (7.9)

 Study 1:

  • Older adults: 78%

  • Control: 78%


Study 2:

  • Dementia: 74%

  • Nondementia: 59%

 N/A Study 1:

  • Older adults: 14.1 (2.3)

  • Controls: 14.3 (2.7)


Study 2:

  • Dementia 12.9 (2.9)

  • Nondementia: 14.5 (2.9)

 N/A
 Brandt et al (2013); United States [69]

  • Anonymous internet sample (n=4125)

  • Clinical sample (n=52)

  • Healthy

  • MCI

  • Probable AD

  • Non-AD dementia

  • Anonymous internet sample: 57.2, 13.2

  • Clinical sample: 75.9, 3

  • Internet sample: 68.1%

  • Clinical sample: 64%

 N/A

  • Internet sample, mean highest grade completed: 15.7,  2.7

  • Clinical sample, mean highest grade completed: 13.8, 3

 N/A
 Lancaster et al (2020); United Kingdom [70] Participants (n=35) Healthy 52.6 (5.1) 74.0% N/A 15.5 (2.7) N/A
Decision support
 Bogza et al (2020); Canada [71]

  • HCPsq (n=7)

  • People with MCI (n=12)

 MCI

  • HCPs: <age 30 (14%), age 30‐39 (57%), age 50‐59 (29%)

  • MCI: age 60‐64 (17%), age 65-74 (50%), age 75-84 (25%), age >85 (8%)

  • HCP (86%)

  • MCI (50%)

  • HCP: N/A

  • MCI: White (100%)

  • HCP: N/A

  • MCI: no education (8%), high school degree (33%), college degree (25%), university degree (25%)

 N/A
 Ekstract et al (2017); United States [72] Participants (n=1262) Healthy 54.5 (range: 22-87) 86% White (90%) N/A N/A
a

N/A: not applicable.

b

BBL-GP: Body Brain Life in General Practice.

c

LMP: Lifestyle Modification Program.

d

AC: active control.

e

SCD: subjective cognitive decline.

f

ReaCT: reasoning cognitive training.

g

GCT: general cognitive training.

h

SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Time-bound Goal Enhanced Debriefing Group.

i

MCI: mild cognitive impairment.

j

MrNPS: mood-related neuropsychiatric symptoms.

k

CCT: computerized cognitive training.

l

CCE: computerized cognitive engagement.

m

CCS: computerized cognitive stimulation.

n

aMCI: amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

o

EMMA: electronic memory and management aid.

p

AD: Alzheimer disease.

q

HCP: health care professional.