Table 2.
Risk factors
| Risk factors | N (%) |
|---|---|
| Social history | |
| Yes | 80 (48.5) |
| No | 85 (51.5) |
| History of anaemia | |
| Yes | 31 (18.8) |
| No | 134 (81.2) |
| Bone or joint pains | |
| Yes | 57 (34.5) |
| No | 108 (65.5) |
| Issues during urination | |
| Yes | 16 (9.7) |
| No | 149 (90.3) |
| Urinary infection in the past | |
| Yes | 16 (9.7) |
| No | 149 (90.3) |
| Renal calculus in the past | |
| Yes | 22 (13.3) |
| No | 143 (86.7) |
| Exposure to scans or radiation | |
| Yes | 74 (44.8) |
| No | 91 (55.2) |
| Type of medicine generally used | |
| Allopathic | 127 (77) |
| Ayurvedic | 27 (16.4) |
| Folk medicine | 2 (1.2) |
| Mixed | 9 (5.5) |
| Cultivate vegetables and fruits | |
| Yes | 71 (43) |
| No | 94 (57) |
| Pesticides for crops | |
| Yes | 49 (29.7) |
| No | 116 (70.3) |
| Insecticides for crops and at home | |
| Yes | 76 (46.1) |
| No | 89 (53.9) |
| Pets at home | |
| Yes | 119 (72.1) |
| No | 46 (27.9) |
| Number of working days in a week | 5.88 ± 1.5 days |
| Number of working hours in a day | 7.29 ± 3.7 h |
| Home remedies for general ailments | |
| Yes | 71 (43) |
| No | 94 (57) |
| Source of drinking water | |
| Own well water | 89 (53.9) |
| Bore well water | 5 (3) |
| Panchayat (village council) water | 35 (21.2) |
| Neighbours’ well water | 26 (15.8) |
| Mixed | 10 (6.1) |
| Cleaning of well | |
| Yes | 50 (30.3) |
| No | 50 (30.3) |
| NA | 65 (39.4) |
| Cattle and poultry farming | |
| Yes | 66 (40) |
| No | 99 (60) |
| Exposure to sunlight during work | |
| Yes | 94 (57) |
| No | 71 (43) |
| Protection from heat | |
| Yes | 45 (27.3) |
| No | 120 (72.7) |
| Disposal of waste | |
| Burning | 87 (52.7) |
| Municipality | 55 (33.3) |
| Dumping nearby river | 6 (3.6) |
| Composite | 3 (8.5) |
| Mixed | 14 (1.8) |
| Source of gas | |
| LPG | 27 (16.4) |
| LPG/Traditional | 127 (77) |
| Traditional | 7 (4.2) |
| Multiple techniques | 4 (2.4) |
| Practice of deworming | |
| Yes | 46 (27.9) |
| No | 119 (72.1) |
| Soda or soft drinks | |
| Yes | 62 (37.6) |
| No | 103 (62.4) |
| Frequency of eating commercially prepared or restaurant food | |
| Very rare | 96 (58.2) |
| Once in a month | 15 (9.1) |
| Once in a week | 19 (11.5) |
| Everyday | 35 (21.2) |
| Habit of skipping meals | |
| Yes | 14 (8.5) |
| No | 151 (91.5) |