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. 2025 Aug 12;12:1627476. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1627476

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Copyright © 2025 Di Matteo, Frangiamone, Vila-Donat, Di Cecco, Di Martino, Manyes and Mannina.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Bar charts comparing the concentrations of sugars, organic acids, amino acids, and miscellaneous compounds between GGP and GDP samples. Notable differences include significantly higher glucose, malate, acetate, asparagine, and tyrosine levels in GDP, while GGP ha s higher levels of other compounds. Statistical significance is indicated with asterisks. — Concentrations of sugars, organic acids, amino acids, choline, and uridine in G. lutea flowers, gastric phase (GGP) and duodenal phase (GDP) in mg/100 g of DW ± SD by metabolomics NMR. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 significant differences among GGP and GDP.