TABLE 2.

A brief comparison of the strengths and limitations of in vivo and in vitro cell culture techniques.

Cell culture technology	Culture model	Advantages	Disadvantages	References
2D Culture model	Monolayer culture	High repeatability Low cost High-throughput; Easy to operate	Lack of tumor microenvironment; Monolayer cell culture	Duval et al. (2017)
3D Culture model	Organoid	Simulate the in vivo environment; Long-term maintain; Preserve tumor heterogeneity	Lack of immune system and vascular network	Clevers (2016)
	Autologous culture	Individualized	No standardized system	Tang et al. (2020a)
	Organotypic tissue slice culture	Retains some of the 3D anatomy intact; Fast modeling	Poor repeatability; Inefficiency	Willoughby et al. (1971)
	Organ-on-a-Chip	High-throughput; Microfluidic fine control; All-in-one study of multiple organs	High costs	Del Piccolo et al. (2021)
	3D bioprinting	Accuracy and controllability High-throughput; Efficient	Printing accuracy cannot be guaranteed Difficult to build complex tissues and organs	Nwokoye and Abilez (2024), Shukla et al. (2024)
	Bioreactor	Precise control by multiple sensors High-throughput; Automation	High costs Technically complex operation	Ackermann et al. (2024), Chen et al. (2024)
In vivo culture model	PDX	Provide in vivo environment; maintain tumor heterogeneity	Modeling takes a long time; High costs; Lacks immune system; Heterogeneous microenvironment	Yoshida (2020)
	The humanized mouse	Provide in vivo environment; maintain tumor heterogeneity Simulating the human immune environment	Modeling takes a long time; High costs Transplantation Rejection	Walsh et al. (2017)