Table 1.
THY toxicity in different animal cell lines.
| Cell type | Cell culture/cell line and species of origin | Assay | Exposure | Findings | References | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Enterocytes | Canine BMSC (primary cell culture) and canine BMSC differentiated into ELC cells (primary cell culture) | Alamar blue | THY: 4.66–2,529.67 μM THEO (THY: 40%): 11.32–6,113.89 μM | LC50 for THY is 13.32 ± 0.67 μM (BMSC) and 13.32 ± 5.33 μM (ELC) LC50 for THEO is 533.06 ± 19.99 μM (BMSC), 393.04 ± 6.66 μM (ELC) | (30) | 2015 |
| IPEC-J2 cells (cell line; pig) | WST-1 | THY: 10–200 μM | THY at <100 μM shows no significant effect on viability; at >100 μM, it significantly reduces viability | (25) | 2019 | |
| Trypan blue staining | THY-CIN blend: 0.0067–6656.37 μM; 48 h | High viability (>90%) is observed for concentrations up to 6.66 μM | (31) | 2020 | ||
| Hepatocytes | Porcine hepatocytes (primary cell culture) | Not reported | THEO from three different Thymus species (THY: 38.5%, 49.10% and 56.02%): >2,663.44 μM | No toxicity is detected for any of the EO tested | (32) | 2013 |
| Canine hepatocytes (primary cell culture) | Alamar blue | THY and THEO (THY: 40%): 0.0665–6.665 μM | LC50 for THY is 0.33 ± 0.07 μM LC50 for THEO is 1.20 ± 0.16 μM |
(33) | 2015 | |
| LMH cells (cell line; chicken) | Trypan blue staining | THY-CIN blend (75% 25%); 0.0067 μM a 667 μM; 48 h | High viability (>90%) is observed up to a maximum of 0.67 μM | (34) | 2020 | |
| Renal Cells | Vero (cell line; African green monkey) | XTT | THY: 25–400 μM; 4 days | CC50: 300 μM | (35) | 2012 |
| MDCK (cell line; dog) | BAPTA/AM chelation) | THY: 300–500 μM | Cytotoxicity not prevented by Ca2+ chelation with BAPTA/AM | (36) | 2014 | |
| MDCK (cell line; dog) | Alamar blue | THY: 0.3–0.06 mg/ml and THEO (THY: 40%): 0.18–0.03 mg/ml | THY is more toxic (LC50 = 0.13 ± 0.002 mg/ml) than THEO (LC50 = 0.16 ± 0.01 mg/ml) | (37) | 2015 | |
| FRhK-4 (cell line; monkey) | Visual inspection under optical microscope | THY: 0.1–2%. | Cytotoxicity is observed at THY 2%. | (38) | 2015 | |
| CRFK (cell line; cat) | XTT and visual inspection under optical microscope | THEO (THY: 47%): 8,900, 4,450, 2,225, 1,112.5, 556.25, 278.12, 139.06, 69.53 μg/mL | CC20 for THEO: 194.98 μg/mL | (39) | 2024 | |
| Splenocytes | Rat splenocytes (primary cell culture) | MTT | THY: 0.5–500 μM | IC50: 362 μM | (40) | 2013 |
| Macrophages | RAW 264.7 cells (cell line; mice) | MTT | THY and derivatives (acetyl-THY and benzoyl-THY): 0–100 μg/mL; 48 h | THY at 100 μg/mL reduces survival to 36.5%; benzoyl-THY at 100 μg/mL decreases macrophage survival to 63.6%, and acetyl-THY at 100 μg/mL shows >100% survival | (3) | 2014 |
| Visual inspection under optical microscope | THY: 0.1–2%. | Cytotoxicity is observed at THY 2%. | (38) | 2015 | ||
| MTT | THY: 10–40 μg/mL; 24 h | No cytotoxicity is observed at tested doses | (41) | 2017 | ||
| MTT | THY: 25–400 μM | No cytotoxicity is observed at tested doses | (42) | 2018 | ||
| RAW 264.7 cells (cell line; mice) and bone marrow macrophages (primary cell culture) | MTT | THY: 10–40 μM; 24 h | No cytotoxicity is observed at tested doses | (26) | ||
| Leukocytes | Mice peritoneal leukocytes (primary cell culture) | MTT | THY (1.5–150 μg/mL) | Viability remains >83% at all tested concentrations | (43) | 2012 |
| Monocytes | HD11 monocytes (cell line; chicken) | Trypan blue staining | THY-CIN blend (75% 25%; 1–100,000 ng/ml; 48 h | High viability (>90%) is observed | (34) | 2020 |
| Peripheral blood mononuclear cells | Cattle PBMC (primary cell culture) | MTT | THY:1 and 10 Mm | No cytotoxicity is observed at tested doses | (44) | 2023 |
| Mammary epithelial cells | Mouse mammary epithelial cells (primary cell culture) | MTT | THY: 10–40 μg/mL; 24 h | No cytotoxicity is observed at tested doses | (24) | 2014 |
| Bovine mammary epithelial cells (primary cell culture) | CCK-8 | THY: 16–64 mg/mL; 48 h | No cytotoxicity is observed at tested doses | (45) | ||
| Fibroblasts | NIH-3T3 fibroblasts (cell line; mice) | MTT | Enriched cellulose hydrogel with THY: 0.25–1% | Viability decreases slightly with increasing concentration (98.84 to 88.81%); overall, low toxicity is observed | (46) | 2018 |