Table 10.
Antiparasitic activity of THY and THEOs against various ectoparasites and endoparasites.
| Target parasite | Treatment and concentration | LC50 or Mortality rate (%) | Findings | References | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ectoparasites | |||||
| Musca domestica (fly) | THY (2 g/kg) in quail diet | n/a | Reduces fly emergence and oviposition; significant oviposition repellent effect | (4) | 2014 |
| Culex pipiens (mosquito) | THY-CAR blend; 4:1 | LC50 larvae: 14 mg/L | Shows synergistic ovicidal and larvicidal effects; THY-CAR combinations are effective | (6) | 2019 |
| Rhipicephalus microplus (cattle tick) | Lippia gracilis EO (THY = 59.6%) | LC50: 0.84–1.02 | Shows significant acaricidal effect; is effective on resistant and susceptible strains | (11) | 2016 |
| Rhipicephalus annulatus (cattle tick) | THY-IVM; 1:1. | LC50 of the combination is not reported | Increases mortality, but the combination index exceeds one for all isolates, indicating no synergism | (93) | 2024 |
| Ixodes ricinus (livestock and dog tick) | THY (0.25–5%) | >90% repellency, 100% larvicidal | Shows high toxic and repellent activity; has superior efficacy compared to permethrin | (94) | 2017 |
| Rhipicephalus sanguineus (dog tick) | THY-EUG microemulsion (5 mg/mL each) | >90% reduction in infestations | Shows long-lasting acaricidal effect in field conditions; is well-tolerated on treated animals | (12) | 2021 |
| Dermanyssus gallinae (red mite) | THY-CAR; 4:1 (0.5–2%) | Prolonged efficacy (14 days) | Shows highest efficacy at 4:1 ratio with 2% concentration; demonstrates prolonged residual acaricidal effect | (95) | 2016 |
| Alphitobius diaperinus (poultry mealworm) | OEO | LC50: 0.135 μL/cm2 | Shows high contact toxicity; is effective against pests in poultry settings | (83) | 2020 |
| Endoparasites | |||||
| Eimeria spp. | THY (0–20 mg/mL) | LC50: 1.66 ± 0.44 mg/mL | Shows significant oocysticidal effect, disrupts oocyst wall and membrane integrity, leading to parasite death | (96) | 2013 |
| Eimeria tenella | In vitro: THY (7 ppm) | Not specified | Reduces the invasion of MDBK cells by Eimeria tenella sporozoites | (97) | 2020 |
| Echinococcus granulosus | THEO and OEO | Not specified | Inhibits larval hatching and motility, highlighting potential for livestock nematode control | (98) | 2014 |
|
Mesocestoides corti |
THY | Not specified | Shows concentration-dependent morphological changes; results in complete larval mortality | (99) | |
|
Haemonchus contortus |
In vivo: THEO (300, 150, 75 mg/kg bw, days 0, 6, 12). In vitro: THEO (50–0.097 mg/mL), THY (25–0.048 mg/mL) | In vitro: egg hatching: 96.4–100%, Larval development: 90.8–100%, Larval motility: 97–100%, Adult motility: 100% (8 h) | In vivo: ineffective at tested doses. In vitro: both oil and thymol were highly effective at all parasite stages, with results comparable to levamisole (20 mg/mL) | (100) | 2016 |
| THY and THY acetate | Not specified | Inhibits larval hatching and motility, highlighting potential for livestock nematode control | (47) | 2017 | |
| THY (IC50: 0.13 mg/mL) | IC50: 0.13 mg/mL | THY shows potent ovicidal effect | (101) | ||
|
Haemonchus spp., Teladorsagia spp., Trichostrongylus spp. (resistant strains) |
In vivo: ABZ (5 mg/kg), THY (150 mg/kg), two times, 0 and 24 h. Co-administered and alone. Egg counts: 0 and 14 days | THY efficacy: 0% | THY administered alone or combined with ABZ also fails to reduce eggs number in feces | (65) | 2020 |
|
Haemonchus spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Teladorsagiaspp., Chabertia spp. |
In vitro: THEO (50, 12.5, 3.125, 0.781, 0.195, 0.049 mg/mL) for 48 h (egg hatch test) In vivo: 100 mg/kg body weight of THEO as single dose | Anthelmintic effect: ~25%. | THEO shows significant reductions in nematode egg counts in the in vivo fecal egg count reduction test | (102) | 2022 |
|
Leishmania infantum |
Acetyl- and benzoyl-THY derivatives | EC50: 8.67 μg/mL | Achieves significant reductions in promastigote loads, indicating potential as a treatment for leishmaniasis | (3) | 2014 |
| THY | Not specified | Reduces parasite loads and improves survival in infected hamsters | (103) | 2019 | |
| Cryptosporidium baileyi Cryptosporidium galli | In vitro: THY and THEO (0, 0.25, 0.33, 0.5, 1, 2 mg/mL) | THY: LC50 < 0.4 mg/mL | Both show significant oocysticidal activity. Higher concentrations and longer exposure times increased efficacy. Structural damage to oocysts is observed. Effective as natural disinfectants for controlling Cryptosporidium infections in poultry | (104) | 2019 |