Table 4.

Ecotoxicological assessment of THY- and THY-containing blends on non-target insect species.

Model species	Treatment	Concentrations tested	Results	Conclusion	References	Year
Dung beetle (Ateuchetus cicatricosus)	THY-CAR blend (25–25%)	0.1, 1.0, 10.0, 100.0, 1,000.0 mg/kg; dung from cows fed 300 mg/day for 7 days	No ecotoxic effects are observed at any concentration, including 1,000 mg/kg, which is ~1,000 × field-relevant exposure	The THY-CAR blend appears ecologically safe, showing no toxicity even at concentrations far above expected field exposure levels, making it a viable alternative to traditional veterinary products like IVM	(53)	2023
Vibrio fischeri	THY	0.02, 0.2, 2, 20, and 200 mg/L	Acute toxicity is observed at low concentrations (LC50 = 1.71 mg/L)	THY poses a toxicity risk to aquatic bioindicators at low concentrations	(54)	2024
Daphnia magna		2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 mg/L	Moderate toxicity is observed (LC50 = 8.13 mg/L)	THY exhibits toxicity to D. magna at higher concentrations
Allium cepa		0.03, 0.3, 3, 30, and 300 mg/L	Root growth inhibition is observed (LC50 = 4.05 mg/L)	THY demonstrates acute toxicity to plant bioindicators
Eisenia fétida		0.1, 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 mg/kg	Moderate toxicity is observed (LC50 = 7.68 mg/kg)	THY shows toxicity to E. fetida at moderate concentrations
River microbial community		0.1, 10, 100, and 1,000 μg/mL	No significant growth inhibition is detected; reduced substrate utilization occurs at high concentrations (up to 100 mg/L)	River microbes exhibit resilience to THY exposure; minimal long-term effects are expected
Soil microbial community			Decreased substrate utilization is observed, particularly for polymers and amines (EC50 120 h = 94.13 mg/L)	Soil microbes appear more sensitive to THY than aquatic microbes; potential for biodegradation exists