Table 5.
Pharmacokinetics of THY in rats, rabbits, broiler chickens, pigs, and dairy cattle.
| Species | Matrix | Methodology | Pharmacokinetic parameters | Key findings | References | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rats | Plasma | Inhalation of THY vapor at 500 ppm for 1 h in a sealed chamber | Half-life: ~3 h; AUC: 180 μg·h/mL | THY is rapidly absorbed, reaching peak plasma concentration within 30 min. Slightly longer half-life and higher AUC compared to intravenous administration | (49) | 2019 |
| Plasma | Single intravenous injection of THY (10 mg/kg) | Half-life: ~2.5 h; AUC: 150 μg·h/mL | Rapid increase in plasma THY post-injection; quick distribution phase, followed by a decline in plasma levels | (55) | ||
| Rabbits | Plasma | Feed. THY, 250 mg/kg, 21 days, 7 days of withdrawal | Cmax: 0.05 + 0.02 μg/L | Plasma THY concentration significantly correlates with intestinal wall THY concentration | (56) | 2021 |
| Broiler chickens | Plasma | Feed. THEO (THY:58%): 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 1% w/w for 35 days | Peak plasma concentration: 412.2 ± 170.7 ng/mL (1% THEO), significantly higher than that observed in the other supplementation levels | Systemic absorption of THY results in significantly higher plasma levels at higher THEO concentrations | (57) | 2013 |
| Plasma | Feed. THEO 0.01–0.1% w/w | Peak concentrations: 90 to 850 ng/mL | Higher plasma THY concentrations with increased THEO supplementation | (58) | 2016 | |
| Plasma | Feed. THEO 0.05% (248.97 μg/g of THY) and 0.1% (460.22 μg/g of THY) w/w | Higher concentration at 0.1% addition | Significant increase in plasma THY levels with 0.1% THEO compared to 0.05% | (59) | 2019 | |
| Pigs | Jejune (everted segments) | THY and THY-β-D-glucopyranoside: 100 μM; 120 min | THY peak serosal concentration: 3.2 ± 0.4 μM at 60 min THY-β-D-glucopyranoside peak serosal concentration: 1.8 ± 0.3 μM at 120 min | THY shows rapid absorption, outperforming THY-β-D-glucopyranoside. Its smaller molecular size and lipophilicity enhance bioavailability | (60) | 2013 |
| Plasma | Feed. Free THY: 0.05 g/kg. THY with β-cyclodextrin encapsulation: 0.03 g/kg |
Free THY parameters: Tmax 1.3 h, Cmax 3.6 μg/ml, AUC0-10 h 17.3 μg h/ml. Enhanced absorption with β-cyclodextrin. Encapsulation prolongs THY's half-life, reducing daily administrations. Bioavailability remains unchanged compared to free THY | Faster absorption with β-cyclodextrin. Encapsulation prolongs THY's half-life, reducing administration frequency. Bioavailability remains unchanged | (61) | 2014 | |
| Plasma | Feed. THY with methylcellulose microencapsulation: 0.03 g/kg THY with hydroxylpropyl methylcellulose phthalate microencapsulation: 0.035 g/kg |
Methylcellulose: Tmax: 0.5 h; Cmax: ~5 × higher than free THY; Hydroxylpropyl methylcellulose: similar pharmacokinetics to free THY | Enhances absorption with methylcellulose. Hydroxylpropyl methylcellulose reduces THY half-life but maintains similar absorption profiles | (62) | ||
| Dairy cattle | Plasma | Intramammary Low dose: 240 mg of THY/quarter High dose: 480 mg of THY/quarter | Low dose: half-life:2.101 h; Tmax: 0.5 h; Cmax: 0.035 μg/mL; AUC: 0.137 μg·h/mL High dose: half-life:1.721 h; Tmax: 0.5 h; Cmax: 0.092 μg/mL; AUC: 0.252 μg·h/mL | Systemic absorption observed. Higher AUC in the high-dose group; no significant drug accumulation. | (63) | 2016 |
| Plasma | Intramammary 120 mg THY/quarter/12 h; double dose also tested | Half-life: ~1.6 h | Higher AUC observed at higher doses, but the increase is not proportional | (64) | 2017 | |
| Sheep | Plasma | Oral administration of THY (150 mg/kg) alone and co-administered with albendazole (ABZ; 5 mg/kg) to lambs | 1st administration: Cmax (ng/mL): 217 ± 80.4 aA, Tmax (h): 1.96 ± 1.83, T½ el (h): 5.47 ± 1.62, AUC0-t (ng h/mL): 1,351 ± 521 2nd administration: Cmax (ng/mL): 1,772 ± 1,079, Tmax (h): 1.03 ± 0.08, T½ el (h): 16.0 ± 10.6, AUC0-t (ng h/mL): 7,650 ± 6,397 1st administration (with ABZ): Cmax (ng/mL): 822 ± 457, Tmax (h): 1.00 ± 0.00, T½ el (h): 4.23 ± 1.26, AUC0-t (ng h/mL): 3,375 ± 1,910. 2nd administration (with ABZ): Cmax (ng/mL): 1,877 ± 1,120, Tmax (h): 1.00 ± 0.00, T½ el (h): 9.02 ± 3.29, AUC0-t (ng h/mL): 6,906 ± 3,481. | Coadministration with ABZ increases Cmax and AUC compared to THY alone. The T½ el is significantly reduced after the second administration of THY with ABZ. Tmax remains consistent across both treatments. The second dose of THY alone shows higher Cmax and AUC compared to the first dose, indicating increased absorption or bioavailability | (65) | 2020 |
| In silico | - | - | ADME | THY demonstrates good absorption, ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and inhibition of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein, suggesting potential for drug interactions | (52) | 2020 |