Table 1.

3D Scaffold Fabrication Strategies

Technique	Materials	Key Advantages	Limitations	Applications	Ref
Sticky Bone Scaffold	AFG/i-PRF; Bone substitutes	Seamless defect integration; Sustained growth factor release	Mechanical instability; Preparation complexity	Alveolar augmentation, sinus lifting	[12,35]
3D Printing	PLGA, HA, GelMA	Precision pore design; Patient-specific grafts	Limited bioink strength; Scalability challenges	Customized bone grafts	[18,26]
Electrospinning	PCL, Collagen	ECM-mimetic nanofibers; Drug delivery potential	Fragility; Poor pore connectivity	GBR membranes, periodontal repair	[27,38]
Freeze-Drying	Chitosan, β-TCP	Cost-effective; Interconnected pores	Irregular pore distribution; Degradation variability	Cystic defect filling	[39,40]
Magnetoelectric Scaffolds	Fe₃O₄, Bioceramics	Piezoelectric stimulation; Controlled drug release	Biosafety concerns; Complex fabrication	Jaw joint reconstruction	[28,41]
Hybrid Techniques	PLGA/HA, 3D+Electrospinning	Multiscale functionality; Enhanced mechanical/bioactive synergy	High cost; Technical complexity	Craniofacial regeneration	[42,43]