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. 2025 Jul 22;13(8):1789. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines13081789

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© 2025 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Protein–protein interaction (PPI) network analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between PNI and non-PNI prostate cancer groups. Each node represents a protein encoded by a DEG, and each edge (lines connecting the nodes) represents a predicted protein–protein interaction. (A) The most significant module within the PPI network, identified using the MCODE Cytoscape (v3.10.3). Top-ranked hub genes identified using CytoHubba ranking algorithms: degree (B), closeness (C), and betweenness (D). (E) Venn diagram showing the intersection of hub genes identified by MCODE and all three CytoHubba algorithms, yielding 12 overlapping hub genes.