View full-text article in PMC Sensors (Basel). 2025 Aug 8;25(16):4902. doi: 10.3390/s25164902 Search in PMC Search in PubMed View in NLM Catalog Add to search Copyright and License information © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). PMC Copyright notice Algorithm 1 View Transformation 2D-BEV INPUT 2D Feature map: F∈RH×W×C2D PARAMETERS Verticalfieldofview:ϕup,ϕdown SizeofBEV:U×V OriginoftheBEVgrid:x0,y0 Gridresolution:r∈R Linearprojectionweightsandbias:w,b Sensorheight:h OUTPUT BEVFeaturemap:B∈RU×V×Cbev RESULTS fori=0toH−1 forj=0toW−1 ψ(yaw)←π(2jW−1) θ(pitch)←ϕdown+iH(ϕup−ϕdown) d←cosθcosψ−cosθsinψsinθ∈R3 ifsinθ≠0 t←hsinθ (x,y)←(tcosθcosψ,−tcosθsinψ) u←⌊x−x0r⌋ v←⌊y−y0r⌋ if 0≤u<U and 0≤v<V fbev←wF[i,j,:]+b B[u,v,c]←aggregate(B[u,v,c],fbev[c])