Figure 2.

Antimicrobial biomaterials for infection control in regenerative endodontics. (A) scanning electron micrographs illustrate non-crosslinked and photo-crosslinked SilkMA scaffolds loaded with 10 wt% clindamycin/tinidazole (BiMix). (B) antibacterial activity is quantified by counting colony-forming units. (C) SEM (5000×) images show 7-day E. faecalis biofilms on dentin discs: untreated control, double-antibiotic paste (50 mg/mL metronidazole/ciprofloxacin), and SilkMA scaffolds with or without BiMix. (D) BiMix spectrum of activity against representative endodontic pathogens (Reprinted/adapted with permission from Narayanam et al. [28]. ©2024, elsevier). (ea) photograph of a tubular triple-antibiotic-eluting 3-D construct (TA-3DC) inserted into a dentin slice; (eb) schematic of the confocal-laser-scanning-microscopy (CLSM) workflow used to evaluate Actinomyces naeslundii biofilm. (F) CLSM micrographs of A. naeslundii biofilm before and after seven days of TA-3DC exposure. (G) SEM images of dentin surfaces after TA-3DC treatment (Reprinted/adapted with permission from Bottino et al. [133]. ©2019, John Wiley & sons). (H) SEM images of injectable chitosan hydrogels with and without azithromycin. (I) direct antibacterial assay comparing pure and azithromycin-laden chitosan hydrogels with chlorhexidine as a positive control. (J) SEM of a 7-day E. faecalis biofilm on dentin; (L) SEM after seven-day exposure to azithromycin-laden chitosan hydrogel. (M) Brown & Brenn staining of rat molar apices 28 days after regenerative procedures reveals abundant bacteria in the necrotic control (red arrows), but effective disinfection in groups treated with antibiotic paste or azithromycin hydrogel (Reprinted/adapted with permission from Reis-Prado et al. [21]. ©the authors, 2025, elsevier).