International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS) consensus statement on training and testing in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders

Abstract

To enhance performance, increase resilience and prevent injuries, training and testing (T&T) are the most important strategies for preparing athletes for the demands of their sport. However, for competitive snow sports such as alpine skiing, freestyle skiing and snowboarding, there is little evidence and a lack of international harmonisation of current best practices. This consensus statement, commissioned by the International Ski and Snowboard Federation (FIS), aims to provide recommendations for the physical and psychological T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders within National Ski and Snowboard Associations. A diverse international consensus panel was selected to represent the subject matter regarding gender, nationality, expertise/background, level of competition and skiing and snowboarding discipline. Researchers, officials, physicians, physiotherapists, coaches and former athletes with extensive experience in the field were among the experts. However, the panel had a limited gender balance (seven women and 13 men) and was over-represented by European members (65%) and North American members (20%), whereas there was limited representation of perspectives from South American (5%), Australasian (5%) and African (5%) experts and a lack of experts from Asia. In the first step, the panel established an overarching structure of topics and questions to be addressed by the consensus statement. Following the RAND-UCLA appropriateness method, the consensus process subsequently included panellist ratings, discussions and revisions informed by statements derived from the literature or expert/panellist opinions. These two outcomes served as the basis for manuscript writing, which was finalised through two iterative rounds of manuscript feedback and revision. This consensus statement aims to help athletes, coaches and medical staff of international and national federations plan and implement effective T&T activities for competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders.

Introduction

Training and testing (T&T) are key strategies for preparing snow sports athletes to meet the demands of their sport, with the overall aims of enhancing performance, increasing resilience and preventing injury.¹ The design and development of training plans follow a cyclical process of actual-target comparison (testing) and the elimination of identified gaps and deficits (training).¹ The target is set with reference to the demands of the corresponding sports and must be adapted to relevant contextual factors such as the target group or implementation setting.¹ In addition, open communication and shared decision-making among all stakeholders are key to managing this cyclical process.¹

In the very specific context of competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding, T&T can be particularly challenging, given the specific and complex sports demands, the complexity of performance/injury-relevant factors, geographic decentralisation, seasonal climatic limitations and alternation of training off-snow and on-snow.¹ In particular, competitive skiers and snowboarders face high demands in terms of their physical and mental skills and adaptability to external conditions, making their long-term and short-term preparation unique and challenging.2,13 For example, they must withstand high physical loads during high-speed turns and jump landings,14,20 maintain dynamic equilibrium while adapting to constantly changing weather conditions, terrains/obstacles and external forces20,24 and cope with a complex constellation of psychological stressors.^{9 10 25} In addition, competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding are associated with a high risk of injury.^{26 27}

While there is a wealth of best practice experience in snow sports communities and the National Ski and Snowboard Associations (NSSAs) in relation to the T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, scientific evidence on the topic (particularly with respect to mental T&T and freestyle disciplines) is still scarce, although it has increased, particularly over the last four years.18 12 13 28,50 There, however, remains a lack of international harmonisation of current best practices that would enable their coordinated implementation by relevant members of the athlete entourage. Accordingly, we decided to compile and promote the currently available evidence-informed best practice recommendations for the T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders in the form of a consensus statement that addresses the questions of why, what, how, when, where and who, related to T&T.

Thus, commissioned by the Athlete Health Unit (AHU) of the International Ski Snowboard Federation (FIS), this consensus statement aims to provide consensus-based recommendations for the physical and psychological T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, with a particular focus on youth and adolescent snow sports athletes within NSSAs. It may serve as a common foundation for guiding athletes, coaches and medical personnel of international and national federations, as well as researchers, in planning and conducting effective T&T activities/studies.

Methods

Panel selection

The FIS AHU mandated the first author (JSp) to develop, together with an international expert group, evidence-based recommendations for best practices regarding appropriate T&T activities for competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. The first author, JSp, served as the panel chair and, together with the senior author, EV, managed the entire consensus process. There was no narrower steering committee. JSp and EV selected 20 members and invited them by email to an international consensus panel. The pool of potential topic-relevant experts was based on the FIS AHU and International Olympic Committee (IOC) Health, Medicine and Science networks, as well as suggestions from NSSAs or National Olympic Committees (NOCs). The inclusion criteria were as follows: researcher, NSSA/NOC/FIS/IOC team member of the NSSAs/NOCs/FIS/IOC (ie, officials, physicians, physical therapists and coaches) or former athletes with extensive experience in the field of T&T. No incentives or financial compensation were provided to the panel members for their participation in the process. All panel members (including JSp and EV) served as the authors of this consensus statement and are listed by name, with their institutions and geographic locations in the author information.

Equity, diversity and inclusion

The diverse international consensus panel was selected to represent the topic of T&T in terms of gender, nationality, experience/background, competition level and ski/snowboard discipline. However, we acknowledge that certain perspectives, interests, groups and countries have limited representation despite efforts to the contrary. In particular, the panel had a limited gender balance (7 women and 13 men) and was overrepresented by European members (65%) and North American members (20%), whereas there was limited representation of perspectives from South American (5%), Australasian (5%) and African (5%) experts, and a lack of experts from Asia.

While a variety of factors had to be considered for maximum diversity of perspectives on T&T, regrettably, no additional women could be identified from the alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding communities. Furthermore, after including one well-renowned Asian T&T expert in the qualitative interview study preceding the consensus process,¹ the absence of additional experts from Asia was primarily due to a lack of further personal contacts within the aforementioned networks. To address these limitations in the diversity of our consensus panel, the statements to be voted on were not only proposed by consensus panel members but also derived from a systematic literature review on alpine skiing³ and based on the aforementioned previous qualitative interview study investigating athletes’ and team staff’s perspectives on high-performance snow sports T&T practices.¹ This qualitative interview study on the topic reflected additional voices and perspectives relevant to T&T that were underrepresented in our panel, which included four women and one Asian expert.¹ This is likely to increase the diversity of perspectives that underpin the recommendations in our final consensus statement.

Patient and public involvement

To ensure that the athletes’ points of view were represented and that the recommendations discussed would be feasible in daily sports practice, a former world-class athlete in alpine skiing (TW) and a top 100 athlete in freestyle skiing (SG) were included in the consensus panel. In addition, a former world-class freestyle snowboarder and a current team physiotherapist and researcher in freestyle skiing and snowboarding (LB) provided her feedback on the final version of the manuscript.

Evidence review

Before the consensus process was begun and the manuscript was written, topic-relevant literature was identified through a PubMed search by the panel chair on 19 August 2022 (updated on 9 January 2025), which was made available to the panel members in a digital data repository. The key search terms used were alpine ski*; freeski OR freestyle ski*; snowboard*. All studies considered related to the T&T of alpine and freestyle skiers originated from the field of competitive sports and were published in 2017 or later.

Since 2017, only a relatively small number of studies have been published on the topics of physical and psychological training16,10 12 13 41 44 48 51 and testing128,40 42 45 in the context of competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding. Notably, existing studies are mainly observational and testing-related. Training studies, especially intervention studies, are largely underrepresented, with only two studies published since 2017.^{44 48} Because of the small number of relevant articles identified, we chose not to systematically summarise the available research, as it was quite straightforward for the panel members to obtain an idea of the current state of knowledge as a foundation for their discussions.

Consensus process

The process followed the procedure of a similar study⁷⁴ and was based on the RAND-UCLA Appropriateness Method, which was developed by clinicians at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), in collaboration with the non-profit research organisation RAND.⁷⁵ Online supplemental material file A summarises the detailed process followed to achieve consensus. The study protocol of this consensus statement was not preregistered. The strength of this methodological approach lies in its ability to synthesise the (currently limited) published scientific literature and the (in contrast) extensive expert stakeholder experience on the topic of T&T in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. However, a limitation of this approach is that a majority of our practical recommendations are based solely on expert opinions and require further verification through future research.

We originally intended to develop evidence-based best practices in T&T for all snow sports. However, owing to the significant differences between the various snow sports and the fact that the majority of the T&T experts identified for the panel selection have professional backgrounds in alpine and freestyle skiing or snowboarding, the final version of this consensus statement focuses only on competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding. Further initiatives to address T&T in other snow sports are therefore needed. Nevertheless, at least some of the more general recommendations may be applicable to other snow sports disciplines with similar organisational settings, such as cross-country skiing, ski jumping, Nordic combined, biathlon or ski mountaineering.

Consensus results

The full list of the 234 statements that were derived, discussed and voted on during the consensus process is presented in the online supplemental material file B . Below, reference is made to individual statements with the corresponding number according to this list. Online supplemental material file C summarises the voting results and action choices made during the three rounds of voting. Notably, there were no relevant prior guidelines for most of the statements in our consensus paper. Where they did exist, the subsequent paragraph highlights any agreements or disagreements with the current body of knowledge.

Consensus definitions

Key terms

For a common language in relation to the T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, we suggest the following definitions and clarifications.

Training can be considered the process of developing mental and physical skills and abilities relevant to a particular sport to enhance/maintain performance and/or health (#1).¹ On-snow training refers to skiing/snowboarding-specific training on slopes or in terrain parks while working on a task (#2). Off-snow training (also called dryland training) refers to any training activity that has crossover effects on skiing/snowboarding and may include strength and conditioning, coordination, mobility, motor skills, mental training and recovery (#3). In freestyle disciplines, an additional focus of off-snow training is developing acrobatic skills and practising landings.

To inform athletic skill and performance development and determine how training leads to goal achievement, testing collects baseline or periodic objective data at predetermined times on and off the snow (#6).¹ As such, testing is used to identify areas that can be improved to enhance health and performance (#7), to facilitate athlete understanding of training goals (#8) and to monitor the response to training (#9). It may include objective/quantitative and/or subjective/qualitative measures performed before, during and after the season (#10).

While testing aims to assess athletes’ physical or mental health (eg, identify illnesses, injuries and overuse risks) or to analyse athletes’ physical and mental performance according to the demands of the sport (#20), screening encompasses the identification of physical and mental red flags (#22). It can be used to develop corresponding interventions to counteract risk (#21).^{76 77} While the conceptual approach of pre-season screening to predict upcoming injuries has been critically questioned,⁷⁶ we consider a combination of multiple screening tests that are adjusted to the individual injury history and repeatedly performed as a valuable opportunity to identify physical and mental deficits to be addressed.⁷⁷

Monitoring is a process of repeated testing before, during and after the season that performance and health experts review to survey and understand training responses (#12).⁷⁸ Accordingly, monitoring refers to following data trends, comparing them to the individual baseline values or values of normative athlete populations and adapting training to increase the probability of performance enhancement or injury risk reduction (#11). It may include and build on self-reported, staff-reported and measured metrics (#14).

Key concepts

Preparedness

Youth and elite athletes’ general and sport-specific preparation for the demands of competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding should consider all performance-determining parameters, such as the technical, tactical, physical and psychological components (#5).7,9 Accordingly, preparedness means being physically, mentally and technically/tactically ready to cope with sport-specific demands (#15), and preparedness results from long-term training to enhance physical, mental and sports performance and health (#16).

Physical preparedness can help athletes reach an optimal level of physical performance according to the demands of their sport (#17). Competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding place particularly high demands on the musculoskeletal system. Thus, regarding the alpine subdisciplines, musculoskeletal preparedness (as a subdimension of physical preparedness) may mean that the athletes can take the positions they need on the snow (range of motion) and have the strength to achieve well-coordinated and symmetrical movements in these positions (#20). In freestyle subdisciplines, musculoskeletal preparedness may refer to athletes being flexible enough to reach extreme positions while performing complex tricks and being able to muscularly absorb peak impacts while landing. Mental preparedness can help athletes reach the optimal level of sports-specific mental performance (#18), whereas physical and mental preparedness are interlinked, and preparedness in one domain can be influenced by the other (#19).

Consensus recommendations

A summary of the main content and recommendations of the present FIS consensus statement on T&T in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders is presented in table 1. Notably, to date, the number of scientific studies on T&T in snow sports is limited, and there is a clear need for more evaluations of T&T approaches for competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. Accordingly, our recommendations provide current best practice information rather than being fully evidence-backed.

Table 1. Overview of this consensus statement’s main contents and recommendations for training and testing (T&T) competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders.

Topic	Contents/recommendations
T&T – why?	T&T activities are considered beneficial for systematically preparing competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders for the demands of their sport and to promote adequate priorities or mindsets. Thus, T&T activities may generally serve the following purposes: (1) performance enhancement, (2) increased physical and mental resilience and/or (3) injury prevention.
T&T – what?	T&T should cover different areas related to an athlete’s sport, such as physical skills (strength, endurance, speed, coordination, agility and mobility), motor skills (balance, neuromuscular control, movement quality, proprioception, spatial awareness and sport-specific activities), mental skills (cognitive skills, emotional coping strategies and decision making/risk management), as well as sports technique and tactics to enhance performance effectively. T&T should be multifaceted and span from off-snow to on-snow activities.
T&T – how?	A holistic, athlete-centred perspective is critical for T&T physical and psychological fitness. Testing alone does not affect changes in performance or injury risk; thus, testing results must inform training programming, internal and external load management and risk tolerance. Moreover, setting individual, realistic, measurable goals is essential to any athlete’s long-term development. This consensus statement provides concrete recommendations regarding a conceptual one-season framework for T&T performance-relevant factors and the long-term development of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, and the implementation of periodic health evaluations is critically discussed.
T&T – when?	Snowsports are seasonal and periodisation should consider seasonal priorities and possibilities. This consensus statement presents seasonal considerations regarding the T&T of alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. Additionally, concrete re-testing recommendations are provided.
T&T – where?	T&T should be carried out wherever the athletes have their team and the required resources around them. However, there may be situational deviations from this, and T&T locations should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. The advantages and disadvantages of different approaches are discussed.
T&T – who?	The mutual trust of all involved persons and a close interlinking of the test results and the training contents are very important. Accordingly, we recommend that T&T is ideally implemented by the specific experts of their fields, as far as the available resources allow it.
Contextual adaptations	To guarantee the feasibility, effectiveness and acceptance of T&T activities, contextual aspects are to be considered, including individuality, level, sex/gender, sociocultural factors, disciplines and available resources. Moreover, potential facilitators and barriers of the T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders are discussed.

T&T – why?

T&T are important strategies for preparing competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders for the demands of their sport.¹ The overall goals are to enhance performance, increase physical and mental resilience, prevent injuries and promote adequate priorities and mindsets.

Performance enhancement

Training-induced improvements in objective physical, mental and technical/tactical testing metrics (the details of which depend on the discipline and its requirements) can lead to a higher level of performance (#23).⁷ In this context, testing can help motivate athletes (thus enhancing performance) if communicated well (#31).¹ T&T can improve performance only if it is based on the demands of the respective sport and on current scientific evidence, if it is conducted regularly and is appropriate for age, sex/gender and performance level (#27). Expert stakeholders currently report a lack of evidence, guidelines and protocols related to training methods in competitive snow sports.¹

A better aerobic fitness is associated with better recovery,⁷⁹ the ability to train more⁸⁰ and the ability to perform more high-quality runs on snow, thereby increasing performance (#26). Moreover, identifying and resolving performance-limiting issues, improving athlete self-efficacy and targeting athlete education are important performance-enhancing aspects that should be considered during T&T (#28).

Physical and mental resilience

T&T can increase physical and mental resilience through systematic and gradual exposure to stressors that induce physical and mental adaptations (#32). In this context, testing can identify deficits that need to be addressed, determine the amount of physical load/mental stress that should be used when initiating a training programme, and monitor the response to the training programme (#35).¹ However, while knowing the exact demands of a sport is key for purposeful T&T, the external and internal loads and stress levels occurring in different snow sports are widely unknown (#38).¹

In terms of mental resilience, monitoring and understanding the psychosocial stressors of a given athlete may assist coaches in managing overall stress in athletes and may assist athletes in obtaining a better understanding of their body’s response to mental or social stressors during workouts (#36).⁹ Moreover, training in mental stress tolerance may increase an individual’s ability to withstand mental stress healthily (#33).

Injury prevention

Training-induced improvements in objective physical, mental and technical/tactical testing metrics (the details of which depend on the discipline, its requirements and contextual factors) may have the potential to reduce the risk of injury (#39).⁸¹ Testing can identify modifiable risk factors for (re)injury (eg, by evaluating weaknesses, asymmetries, dysfunction or gross strength differences from self-normative or population data) and baseline values and may inform corrective and sport-specific training countermeasures (#40).¹ Accordingly, identifying (testing) and closing the gap (training) between the athlete’s physical ability and the peak forces to which they are exposed can prevent (re)injury (#41; #90).¹ Following an injury, when physiological health allows it, periodic testing may guide the return-to-sport process (#142).⁸² Finally, injury prevention is also needed for optimal performance (#25). If injury prevention targets go hand-in-hand with performance enhancement targets, the implementation of corresponding measures can be expected to be more effective (#48).

Promoting adequate priorities and mindsets

T&T can (especially in youth athletes) promote appropriate priorities and mindsets by informing decision-making regarding external and internal loads and preparedness and allowing for individual-specific goal setting and life-long evolution (#45).¹ Thus, T&T may support the setting of appropriate expectations/levels of performance (#34), especially if coaches with appropriate pedagogical skills can work with young athletes systematically and over several years (#46). A potential stumbling block for appropriate priorities and mindsets is when the athletes' environment (eg, parents, coaches, other supporting staff and/or schools, federations or media) creates external pressures on their children (#49).¹

T&T – what?

No single performance-determining parameter exists in snow sports, such as competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding (#54). T&T should cover different areas related to an athlete’s sport, such as physical skills (strength, endurance, speed, coordination, agility and mobility), motor skills (balance, neuromuscular control, movement quality, proprioception, spatial awareness and sport-specific activities), mental skills (cognitive skills and emotional coping strategies and decision making/risk management) and sports techniques and tactics to enhance performance effectively (#30; #51).7,9 T&T should be multifaceted and span from off-snow to on-snow activities (#117).¹

Physical skills

For competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, emphasis should be given to optimising physical capacities such as strength, endurance, speed, coordination and agility (#64),78 12 13 41 42 47 52 67 68 70 71 83,89 which ideally should be trained and tested according to age, sex/gender and performance level (#61). Specifically, test batteries for youth and junior skiers and snowboarders could include field-based test batteries and/or more sophisticated postural stability tests, agility tests, isometric leg extension and core strength tests, jump performance/landing quality tests and aerobic/anaerobic endurance tests, as described elsewhere.^{61 86 90 91} At the elite level, additionally loaded power tests, 90 s Wingate tests, VO₂max tests and more sport-specific test protocols may be indicated.^{6 29 40 70 83 85 86} In addition, in snow sports, such as competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding, sufficient mobility of the lumbar-thoracic spine, hip and ankle (especially in snowboarding where softer boots are used) may be crucial (#63).⁸⁹ Strengthening the lower extremities, core and neck is important for competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders from both performance and injury prevention points of view (#62).^{44 92 93} A study of junior ski racing has shown that there may be a relationship between trunk strength and knee injuries (#53).⁹⁴ In particular, competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding require a high degree of coordination of the entire body; thus, coordination should be maximised (#66).⁷ The motor commands to one body segment must actively compensate for forces induced by the movements of the other (#69). Furthermore, coordination T&T should train and test the head/neck/eyes, the trunk and the upper and lower limbs separately (#70). Finally, athletes may experience reductions in their general coordination as they mature, but sport-specific coordination may remain unchanged or improve (#71).

Motor skills

The development of basic motor skills through on- and off-snow training at young ages is important (#55). General movement competency and breadth lead to improved repeatability and make sport-specific movement tasks less fatiguing, which improves skill acquisition and overall performance over the long term (#72). Basic skill acquisition must be ensured in preparing athletes of all levels, but the coach’s awareness of the development of age-specific and sex-specific techniques is critical (#95). In addition, for competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, emphasis could also be given to sport-specific skill acquisition (#64 a). The sport-specific motor skill domains used to test/train include balance, neuromuscular performance/control, movement quality and sport-specific activities in naturalistic environments (#75).

Balance and sensorimotor performance should be developed to accommodate sport-specific demands (#67)⁴² and testing should include assessments of balance and sensorimotor function (#68). Neuromuscular training can improve knee joint stability/control,⁹⁵ decrease harmful knee loading and injuries^{44 48 96} and may improve jump performance/quality and balance-related postural control (#56). Greater movement quality may lead to injury reduction, improved athletic performance and sporting success (#93). Moreover, to prevent injuries, individuals should strive to maintain lower limb symmetry unless there is a sport-specific rationale for asymmetry (#57).^{72 97} Accordingly, in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, among other tests, special emphasis should be given to double-legged jump tests (including movement quality assessments of jump landing patterns), single-leg squats, single-leg drop jumps and cutting/lateral movement tasks with a focus on movement quality and control (#94).^{30 32 57 61 98 99} For their analyses, a systematic analysis of video footage and/or data from measurement technology can be helpful (#96).^{30 61}

Sport-specific motor skills can be acquired through sport-specific off-snow and on-snow training (#78). Olympic alpine skiers, for example, train and compete for up to 130–150 days on snow each year, whereas complementary off-snow training accounts for approximately 14–21 hours a week.⁶ In freestyle disciplines, for example, new aerial skills can be acquired in relatively safe environments (eg, pools, trampolines, air tracks or landing airbags) before attempting a new trick on snow (#80). In addition, competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders may even acquire various general motor skills through the practice of alternative sports in the transition phase and general preparation phase (#77). Generally, sport-specific motor skill acquisition may be improved by training that combines both internal sensations and external observations, aiming at a deeper understanding and perception of the movement (#79).⁵⁴

Mental skills

In all competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, emphasis should be given to optimising their different mental capacities (#64b), as described in detail elsewhere.¹⁰⁰ Research in alpine skiers has shown that mental toughness, grit and perfectionistic striving (the latter defined as internally driven high personal standards as opposed to externally driven dysfunctional concern over mistakes) are associated with prolonged sports engagement and improved individual performance trajectories.¹⁰ Specifically, competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders may benefit from the T&T of cognitive skills and emotional coping strategies (#91).^{9 10 53 101}

Owing to the constantly changing conditions in skiing and snowboarding (eg, unexpected snow conditions, poor visibility or wind), cognitive abilities such as attention, perception, memory, action planning (eg, choice of line down a course or trick selection) and reflection are highly important (#83).¹⁰¹ Moreover, decision-making, assessing weather and snow conditions and evaluating equipment are all part of the cognitive ability to manage and minimise risks and are critical in competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding (#85).^{1 82 102} Interestingly, while cold temperatures are known to hamper cognitive function, elite alpine skiers can maintain their performance during cognitive tasks in a cold environment.¹⁰³ In the competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding context, cognitive T&T should focus on the relationship between processing the environment/stimuli and responding appropriately (eg, recognising the gate and preparing to turn while scouting for the next gate in the alpine context or spotting the landing, preparing to land, adjusting speed to the wind conditions in the in-run of a jump in the freestyle) (#82). The T&T of cognitive skills should include visualisation, self-talk and flow state education/training (#81). Snowsports place high demands on visual-motor coupling, which can be trained (#234). Snowsport-relevant cognitive tests may include tests of reaction time, processing speed, attention, executive functioning, episodic memory and working memory (#84). Cognitive skill assessments should occur in quiet, non-distracting environments and under optimal mental conditions (eg, well-rested) or with cognitive challenges that may better mimic training and competition environments (#86). However, besides non-snow sports specific cognitive tests as part of concussion baseline and return-to-sport tests,¹⁰⁴ tests of cognitive abilities specific to snow sports are rarely carried out in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. This is probably because suitable test procedures that realistically reflect the snow sports environment are lacking. In this context, virtual reality could become more important in T&T in the future (#87).

The T&T of emotional competence should encompass building trust and self-confidence, as well as coping mechanisms for life, sports stressors and postevent/postseason mental health symptoms and disorders (#88). ^{9 53 105}Finally, T&T of mental health aspects should be given greater priority and practice awareness than they currently have (#104).¹⁰⁶

Sports technique and tactics

Proper on-snow sports techniques while turning right and left with minimal lateral differences,¹⁰⁷ proper landing techniques¹⁰⁸ and superior dynamic postural control play key roles in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders (#76).⁴² Moreover, since turns or jumps in skiing or snowboarding are never the same,²³ special attention should be given to the situational availability of the movement technique to adapt adequately to constantly changing conditions (#97). Accordingly, athletes’ evaluation, decision-making and risk management skills, fall behaviour reflexes and personal responsibility and adaptability should also be developed during off-snow and on-snow training (#98).

Periodic health evaluation

A thorough periodic health evaluation (PHE) should be performed on athletes following the relevant International Sport Federation guidelines,^{109 110} public health guidelines in the relevant country¹¹¹ or expert guidelines such as the preparticipation physical evaluation monograph (#99).¹¹² The purpose of PHEs is to determine the athletes’ state of health and to inform them of the required actions to be taken (#100).¹¹¹ PHEs for competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders should minimally include a medical history and a physical examination of the athlete (#101). PHEs may include additional diagnostic medical laboratory tests and tests to assess physical and mental health (#101). Importantly, some national federations require PHEs for all their athletes and their regular implementation should be supervised by practitioners who are familiar with snow sports and their specific demands (#103).

Physical health screening

Regular physical PHEs should be carried out for testing purposes and improving athletes’ well-being and health and thus performance (#102).¹¹¹ Specifically, physical PHEs may include cardiac screening, blood sample analyses, asthma and allergy evaluations, pulmonary function assessments, cognitive function assessments, relative energy deficiency in sports (REDs) screening and musculoskeletal health and pain assessments.¹¹¹ Owing to increased risks for musculoskeletal injuries, competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders may additionally be assessed in terms of neuromuscular/functional performance deficits with a focus on thigh muscle strength/power,^{37 59 64} thigh muscle activation patterns,^{32 65} jump landing technique and dynamic knee valgus control,^{30 61} core strength,⁹⁴ core stability³¹ and dynamic postural control.³⁸ Moreover, imaging modalities for assessing tendon and muscle characteristics are helpful for early recognition of overuse and/or monitoring training adaptations.33,3558 62 In addition, snow sports such as competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding often occur under poor visibility conditions (eg, fog, snowfall and poor ground visibility).²⁰ In view of this and the constantly changing contrasts of the environment (eg, light-shadow change) and the adaptation to the respective course environment, the visual component plays a very important role (#231). In snow sports, general visual clarity, the best possible contrast vision and fast focusing from near to far are crucial parameters (#232). Eye tests are rarely carried out in snow sports, although they are reasonable and highly recommendable, for example, as part of a PHE (#233).

Mental health screening

Periodic mental health assessments may include the Sports Mental Health Assessment Tool (SMHAT-1) and the Sports Mental Health Recognition Tool 1 (SMHRT-1) evaluations, family and personal history and medication history (#92; #105).^{106 113 114} The detection and treatment of mental health symptoms and disorders may decrease the risk of injuries since depression and anxiety are associated with increased injury risk (#58). The use of the SMHAT-1 and SMHRT-1 is likely to increase the number of referrals for mental healthcare, so it is important to have sport-specific mental health support in place for the care of athletes (#106). The SMHAT-1 is an instrument with preliminarily documented validity that can be used to identify a person with possible mental health symptoms or disorders, including any urgent need for care (#107; #110; #223). It was developed for sports medicine physicians and other licensed/registered health professionals to assess elite athletes (defined as professional, Olympic, Paralympic or collegiate level, aged 16 years or older) (#108) and consists of: (1) triage with an athlete-specific screening tool, (2) six subsequent disorder-specific screening tools and (3) a clinical assessment (and related management) by a sports medicine physician or licensed/registered mental health professional (#109). The contents of the SMHAT-1 are currently undergoing revision to improve the tool’s sensitivity and specificity. SMHAT-1 should be used as a screening test, ideally at three points in the year, as there are multiple seasons in a calendar year, including preseason, in-season and postseason, as recommended by the IOC (#111).¹¹³ SMHRT-1 was developed as a lay person tool for use by athletes and their entourage (eg, friends, fellow athletes, family and coaches) (#112).¹¹³ For example, if an athlete indicates that they may be at risk for harming themselves or others, they should be put in immediate contact with a licensed mental healthcare provider, and other personnel should be notified as appropriate and allowable (#113). If screening for mental health symptoms and disorders reveals moderate to severe mental health symptoms or disorders that may be worsened by continued sports participation at the same level (eg, a sport-fuelled eating disorder), then reductions, alterations or complete cessation of training should be considered (#123). Further mental health observations can occur in daily conversations between coaches and athletes (#114). Athlete mental health screening should continue into retirement, a transition period with high risk for mental health symptoms and disorders (#127).

T&T – how?

A holistic, athlete-centred perspective is critical for T&T physical and psychological fitness (#89). Testing alone will not affect performance or injury; thus, testing results must inform programming, external and internal load management and risk tolerance (#116). T&T should incorporate dedicated test protocols, normative data and contextual information to inform an individual’s programme in a short-term cycle. Reference data should be used only if the normative data are established based on assessments of a similar population (#118).

Conceptual one-season framework

Generally, testing should be performed before the season, periodically throughout the season and at the end of the season (#133). The preseason period could include full baseline testing, early preseason testing, mental health assessment and goal planning (#131). The competition season period strives for maintenance and goal execution (#132). Off-season testing is important, as athletes usually have the most time to complete the testing and have the opportunity to adjust their training for the upcoming season (#134). The frequency of testing is dependent on what is being assessed, how long it takes for adaptations to occur, the interval between tests that have been validated or are recommended for a specific test and if an interval change happens (eg, injury or illness) that warrants repeat testing (#139).

Figure 1 provides a conceptual one-season framework for the T&T of elite competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders.

Figure 1. Conceptual one-season framework including some key considerations for the implementation of T&T activities in elite competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. Equip: equipment; Eval: evaluation; PHE: periodic health examination; Plan: planning; SMHAT-1: Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1; T&T, training and testing.

This framework may need contextual adaptation when applied to youth athletes, that is, U16 (figure 2). In particular, for youth skiers and snowboarders, longer off-season periods, resource-optimised T&T content (eg, more local training and competition units and field-based testing batteries), and a later start and a later end of the competition season should be considered.

Figure 2. Conceptual one-season framework including some key considerations for the implementation of T&T activities in youth (ie, U16) competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. Eval: evaluation; PHE: periodic health examination; Plan: planning; SMHAT-1: Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1.

Long-term development framework

T&T should be a common thread regarding long-term development throughout one’s career (#124).¹ From a long-term athlete development perspective, T&T should evolve from fundamentals to more complex sport-specific tasks (#169). Setting individual, realistic, measurable goals is essential to any athlete’s long-term development (#125).

T&T – when?

Time of day considerations

Previous research has highlighted potential time-of-day effects on strength and endurance T&T.¹¹⁵ Accordingly, the effect of circadian rhythm should be considered when evaluating athletic performance and T&T should occur at approximately the same time of day.^{115 116}

Seasonal considerations

Preseason testing can provide information on an athlete’s maturation to inform proper external and internal training loads for prepeak height velocity (PHV), during PHV, and post-PHV athletes (#42). Preseason testing can be used to identify those athletes who need special monitoring in the following season in the area of the deficit revealed by the test (#43). Preseason testing can provide information on the fear of (re)injury, helping to inform adequate methods for both preventing reinjuries and managing fear, such as in the case of an athlete recovering from a severe injury (#44). For healthy athletes, baseline testing should be performed at the beginning of the off-snow preseason, retesting after each training block (generally 4–6 weeks) or at least once before the competition season (#140).

In the off-season period, the past season may be evaluated concerning goal achievement, implications and changes for the upcoming season and comparisons of preseason and postseason tests (#130). Early off-season testing may be indicated to establish a change in values for the season (#136) or to evaluate the return-to-sport progress (#137).

Snowsports are seasonal,⁷ and periodisation should consider multiple seasons (northern and southern hemispheres) and environmental factors (eg, snow availability) (#128). The training periodisation is not the same for lower-level athletes as it is for elite athletes because of different competition seasons and the need to adapt the periodisation through growth and skill development (#129). Moreover, there is a need to reconsider classical season planning since climate change affects the feasible seasonal phases (#122).

Re-testing considerations

Owing to day-to-day variability, single testing days conducted only a few times a year may not provide representative information on athlete performance; this should be considered when determining the time frames for interventions and retesting (#141). Historical data from an athlete can be used with repeated testing to monitor the response to training, determine when an athlete can safely return to sport following an injury or illness and identify when an athlete should consider a life transition (#126).

In the return-to-sport context, athletes should (if practically feasible) be comprehensively retested before returning to full training loads, returning to snow or returning to competitions (#143). When athletes return to sports after an injury, they are exposed to the same external and internal loads as healthy athletes. Thus, testing should assess the ability of the athlete’s tissue to handle sports-specific loads (#144).

T&T – where?

Training should be carried out wherever the athletes have their team and the right resources around them (#150). Preferably, testing should be performed within the framework of national centres for better test standardisation unless regional centres are well trained and quality is monitored (#149). At the youth and adolescent level, T&T should occur at the school’s training facilities for youth athletes attending a sports boarding school to save time and costs (#151).

Centralisation versus decentralisation

The advantages of T&T within national centres are that centralisation allows for more equipment and personnel, better facilities and exchanging ideas with other athletes, including those from other sports (#145). The disadvantages of T&T within national centres are travel costs, travel fatigue and increased difficulty in coordinating (#146). The advantages of T&T close to the athletes’ homes are that it is more convenient for the athletes, that athletes may be more rested, have less stress from additional travel and that travel-related costs are lower (#147). The disadvantages of T&T near the athlete’s home may include fewer available resources (people, equipment, facilities) and more heterogeneity in testing (different people performing the test, different equipment being used, etc) (#148).

Testing during training versus dedicated testing days

The advantage of incorporating testing into regular training days is that it may reduce the impact of missing training due to dedicated test days (#156). The disadvantage of testing during daily training may be skewed fatigue-related data (#157). The advantage of dedicated test days is that the athletes’ test preparation can be better standardised (#153). One disadvantage of dedicated test days for female athletes is that they cannot easily coordinate with the hormonal cycle (#155).

T&T – who?

With respect to training, athletes and team staff (eg, coaches, physiotherapists, nutritionists, physiologists, etc) must be committed and believe in the process (#160).¹ The mutual trust of all personnel involved and the close interlinking of the test results and the training contents are very important (#161).

Staff with appropriate knowledge and skills should perform and interpret the testing and guide training (#158). In an ideal scenario, tests should be conducted by a multidisciplinary team, including the athlete, coaches and specialised personnel (eg, strength and conditioning, exercise physiology, sports dietitians, sport psychology, medical personnel, etc) (#159). The assessment of motor skills requires experts in movement analysis, which can include biomechanists or physiotherapists who can perform kinematic/kinetic assessments with equipment or coaches who can have a visual look at sport-specific movement patterns (#74).

Mental health screening should fall under the purview of sports medicine physicians and other licensed/registered health professionals (#163).¹¹³ Management of any mental health symptoms and disorders that emerge from screening (or via other detection methods) should incorporate a multidisciplinary healthcare team (#164). When a mental healthcare provider is not available, a correspondingly trained sports medicine or primary care physician may take ownership to provide this care; immediate athlete safety (eg, regarding suicidality, self-harm or substance intoxication or withdrawal) should be prioritised (#167).

Contextual adaptations

Individuality

In snow sports such as competitive alpine and freestyle skiing and snowboarding, it is very difficult to correlate the expression of individual factors (physical or mental performance parameters) with competition performance; the same applies to individual tests of individual performance (#52). Some athletes may excel in a group/team testing environment. Others may not; this must be considered in training and test planning (#195).

Level

A specific approach for lower-level athletes compared with elite-level athletes is needed (#168).117,119

With respect to content, training in young athletes should be adapted to the respective stage of development and should focus on long-term development (#171). A snow sport-specific load tolerance is best achieved with an early start of systematic fitness training adapted to the respective development (#179). Special emphasis should be placed on general/basic skills, such as technique-oriented on-snow or strength training (#178). In particular, physical skills need to be developed early so that at the elite level, it does not take too much time to compensate for what has been missed (#180). According to the IOC Consensus Statement on Youth Sports Development, youth-appropriate strength training should start before puberty and focus on technique quality and safe and enjoyable training (#181).^{118 119} In various snow sports, even young athletes are exposed to relatively high turn or landing forces; this makes adequate physical training all the more important (#186). Thus, particularly for young athletes, previous injuries or overuse problems must be thoroughly considered in T&T (#174). Moreover, in youth athletes, biological maturity should be considered in addition to chronological age (#172). Youth athlete testing should be performed at a test-specific frequency while considering the athletes’ skill development and maturation levels (#176).

In terms of the framework, a well-established federation with transparent structures and an optimal support environment is key to success at the elite level. However, medical networks and sports scientists should also be available at the junior level (#200). National federations should allow young athletes access to snow sport-specific test batteries and training regimes (#182). At the youth level, parents of athletes should be involved and informed of the rationale for T&T strategies; they are key for athlete compliance (#175). If resources are limited, it may be necessary to consider approaches that are alternatives to those at the elite level. For example, adequately trained off- or on-snow coaches could also teach strategies to improve sport-specific mental aspects, and group-based training settings may become necessary (#184).

Too many or geographically more distant competitions may increase the risk of dropout or injury in youth and junior athletes (#205). The effect of a decrease in travel per year on athlete mental health may be positive, with less disruption to circadian rhythms and routines (#210). Insomnia may be reduced if there is less travel with unfamiliar sleep environments, which can exacerbate this common sleep disorder (#211). In contrast, changing to more competitions may increase injury risk, and injury is a known sport-specific risk factor for anxiety, depression and further injuries (#212). Younger athletes are at greater risk of developing anxiety across sporting contexts and may be at greater risk with increased competition (#214). Feeling pressure to perform is a known risk factor for anxiety in athletes, and more competitions could be expected to increase this type of pressure (#213). Accordingly, regimenting the maximum number of competitions per season may increase safety through more effective external and internal load management (#206). Especially in the first FIS years, a limitation of the number of races may be reasonable; this limitation could even be expanded as a restriction within the individual disciplines (especially speed disciplines) (#207). Reducing the number of competition venues to which athletes must travel could be an option for responsible external and internal load management, sustainability and cost reduction in youth athletes (#208).

Sex/gender

In addition to monitoring female-specific health domains as described elsewhere,¹²⁰ sex/gender-specific adaptations should be considered when training female athletes.^{121 122} In competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders, sex-specific injury patterns and modifiable risk factors should be reviewed and relevant testing and training programmes should be developed based on this information (#188). Despite differences in the difficulty of the courses, in certain snow sports disciplines, the speed is similar between women and men, so the external forces acting are comparable; this should be considered in T&T (#189). T&T should consider sex/gender-specific attitudes toward training and risk behaviours (#191). Hormonal fluctuations and anatomical factors specific to women may further increase the risk of snow sports injuries in women (#190). For both female and male athletes, low energy availability (LEA)/REDs risk screening tools may be considered (#192).¹²³ To ensure that female-specific aspects are sufficiently addressed in T&T, there is a need for more female team staff (eg, coaching staff or medical staff) in snow sports (#193).

Sociocultural

All aspects of T&T should be undertaken in a culturally competent way in which social determinants of health are appreciated (#198). Sociocultural considerations related to T&T include access to T&T resources, sociocultural food or clothing norms and time restrictions for training (eg, holidays) (#194). In some sociocultural contexts (and reinforced by talent selection systems), chasing winter and good training days is given more priority than appropriate external and internal load management; a change in mindset is needed (#197). This problem may become even more evident with further climate change.

Snow sport disciplines

T&T should be sport-specific for the corresponding snow sport discipline (#59). Sport-specific injury patterns and modifiable risk factors should be reviewed, and relevant testing and training programmes should be developed based on this information (#185).

Available resources

Depending on the available resources, testing could be supported by specialised equipment (eg, force plates, strength and conditioning equipment, metabolic carts, isokinetic equipment, timing equipment) and appropriate environments (eg, gym, a sport-specific location outside) (#165). Objective tests are critical for identifying deficits that can be addressed to improve performance and reduce injury or illness risk (#225). To interpret an objective measure, a baseline value can be highly important (eg, a comparison with a healthy baseline value when testing for return-to-sport clearance) (#226). Tests should be performed only if they provide useful information; therefore, testing needs to be data driven (#227).

However, prioritisation may be indicated when resources are limited for a particular reason. Consideration should be given to which type of training is most appropriate (#203), and a multidisciplinary team should determine which tests will have the greatest expected impact (#166). Additionally, test frequency may be a modulator in this context. If resources are limited, annual (youth level) and biannual (elite level) test cycles are recommended as a minimum, depending on the test (#204).

Facilitators and Barriers to T&T

Potential facilitators of compliance with T&T procedures in competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders include adequate dissemination of knowledge about the rationale for testing and its relationship to sport discipline, results feedback and direct impact on the athlete’s training programme and thus performance and health (#222). For T&T, there is a need for more evidence to inform practitioners’ decision-making (#50).¹ Effective T&T requires a post-test communication plan to inform athletes and staff about the test outcomes, what they mean and what the training implications are (#120; #162).¹ One must ensure that any collected test data translates into actionable steps for training and that the athlete has access to the equipment/personnel required to take those steps (#121).

Potential barriers to T&T compliance include access to resources, athletes’ lack of understanding and the financial burden or expense of travelling to the testing site when it is not the same as the training site (#221). The athlete should be informed about the value of testing and the interpretation of the results (#162; #196). There is a need for significant education about the importance of T&T for everyone involved (#223). Education during testing can be invaluable; for example, concussion baseline testing is a good time to educate athletes about concussions (#47). Making coaches aware of group performance levels and optimal coordination and cooperation between on-snow coaches and off-snow coaches (recovery aspects) is important (#220). Although it may be obvious to a coach that off-snow training should be aligned with what is being done on the snow, it may not be as obvious to the athlete; there is a need for education on this topic (#224).

A major barrier for sports federations in increasingly evolving data-driven approaches is the need for advanced internal expertise or the involvement of external institutions or experts (#230). T&T requires a data team and a relevant data platform to store and analyse the data (#119; #217). Transparent communication and consent about what data are collected, where they are stored and who has access to them are critical (#215). Before data collection, there must be a conversation about who should/can access the athlete’s data, and athletes should sign an informed consent form (#216). Athletes should be given the right to revoke access to their data collected by sports federations/clubs at any time (#218). Compared with general medical records, mental health records are relatively more protected/confidential in many locations. Before any mental health assessment/treatment, discussions should be held with athletes about who has access to the records and under what circumstances (eg, acute danger) that rule can be modified according to local laws and regulations (#219).

Conclusion

The present consensus statement compiles and promotes evidence-informed best practice recommendations regarding the T&T of competitive alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. It particularly focuses on the why, what, how, when, where and who questions related to T&T and contextual adaptations. Accordingly, we hope that this consensus statement will stimulate discussion among athletes, coaches and medical staff of international and national federations regarding the planning and implementation of their T&T activities and promote performance enhancement, increased physical and mental resilience and injury prevention. Moreover, owing to environmental and organisational similarities with other competitive snow sports, such as cross-country skiing, ski jumping, biathlon and ski mountaineering, we assume some potential for transferring many of our recommendations to these sports settings.