Table 1.
Main carotenoids in muffin and bread products (µg/g) and the impact of baking process on composition of carotenoids (% decrease).
| Carotenoids | Muffin | Bread | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HCS (100%) |
HCS/C (1:1, w/w) | HCS/C (1:2, w/w) | Wheat (100%) | Wheat/HCS (75/25, w/w) | Wheat/HCS (50/50, w/w) | |
| 15-cis-Lutein | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.1 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 |
| all-trans-Lutein | 1.5 | 1.7 | 2.0 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| all-trans-Zeaxanthin | 0.2 | 1.5 | 2.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
| 9-cis-Lutein | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | nd | nd | nd |
| 9-cis-Zeaxanthin | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | nd | nd | nd |
| 15-cis-β-Cryptoxanthin | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | nd | nd | nd |
| all-trans-β-Cryptoxanthin | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | nd | nd | nd |
| Lutein-3-O-linoleate | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.5 | nd | 0.4 | 0.6 |
| Lutein-3-O-oleate | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | nd | 0.3 | 0.4 |
| Lutein dilinoleate | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | nd | 0.3 | 0.4 |
| Total unbounds (free) | 2.4 | 3.9 | 5.0 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 1.2 |
| Total bounds (mono- and di-esters) | 1.5 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 1.4 |
| Total carotenoids | 3.9 | 4.8 | 5.8 | 0.5 | 1.9 | 2.6 |
| Impact of baking process expressed as % decrease | ||||||
| Total unbounds | 44.2 (18.6) a | 55.7 (13.7) | 50.0 (13.0) | 66.7 (20.0) | 59.1 (4.6) | 52.0 (4.0) |
| Total bounds | 53.1 (15.6) | 40.0 (13.3) | 38.5 (7.7) | - | 37.5 (12.5) | 41.7 (12.5) |
| Total carotenoids | 48.0 (17.3) | 53.4 (13.6) | 48.7 (12.4) | 66.7 (20.0) | 50.0 (7.9) | 46.9 (8.1) |
a Figures between brackets are the reduction percent due to oven baking. nd: Not Detected. Source: Abdel-Aal et al., 2022 [14].