TABLE 5.
Antimicrobial categories of S. rebaudiana.
| Category | Microorganism (Latin) | Extract type | Active results | Antimicrobial index (e.g., MIC/zone) | Mechanism (if known) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| bacteria | Escherichia coli O157 | Fermented hot water extract | Exhibited bactericidal activity | Complete killing at 40% (v/v) | Acidic pH-dependent bactericidal effect; suppression of VT1/VT2 toxin production |
Ruiz-Ruiz et al. (2017)
Tomita et al. (1997) |
| Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli EC127 | Fermented hot water extract | Viable count reduced from 109 to <105 cfu/mL within 2 h at 20% (v/v) | High susceptibility | Acidic pH disturbs extracellular environment and interferes with metabolic activity | ||
| Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli EC174 | Fermented hot water extract | Viable count reduced from ∼109 to <102 cfu/mL within 2 h at 20% (v/v) | High susceptibility at 20%; total kill at 40% (v/v) | Acidic pH damages the cell membrane and leads to cell death | ||
| Escherichia coli | Crude methanolic extract | Exhibited bactericidal activity | Positive control: amoxicillin; negative: <1% DMSO; 69% inhibition rate | -- | (Tomita et al., 1997; Sumit et al., 2008; Maryam et al., 2015; Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2017; Chakma et al., 2023; Stachurska et al., 2023) | |
| Volatile extract (e.g., petroleum ether) | Exhibited bactericidal activity; complete inhibition at low concentration | MIC as low as 250 µg/mL | -- | |||
| Aqueous extract | Inhibition observed | 7 mm (low activity) | -- | |||
| Ethanol extract (shaking or Soxhlet method) | Moderate to high antibacterial activity observed | Inhibition zone range: 6.53–18.81 mm; max: 18.81 mm | -- | |||
| Escherichia coli DSM 5695 | SRa (25%, acetone) | Initial inhibition followed by rebound | MIC: 25%; toxic | Concentration-dependent toxicity; weakened under dynamic conditions | Stachurska et al. (2023) | |
| SRm (25%, Methanol) | Enhanced lysis followed by rebound | MIC: 25%; detoxified but activated | Promotes lysis; growth stimulation under dynamic conditions | |||
| Escherichia coli DSM 613 | SRa (25%, acetone) | OD significantly reduced | MIC: 25%; toxic | Toxic under static, but neutralized under dynamic conditions | ||
| SRm (25%, acetone) | No significant antibacterial activity | None | No apparent toxicity or inhibition | |||
| Proteus mirabilis | Polar extracts (methanol, ethyl acetate, hexane) | All extracts showed activity; hexane extract exhibited the strongest inhibition | Moderate to high activity | -- | (Tomita et al., 1997; Sumit et al., 2008; Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2017) | |
| Chloroform | Inhibition (10 mm zone of inhibition) | 10 mm | Antibacterial activity | |||
| Salmonella spp. | Fermented hot water extract | Viability reduced from ∼109 to <102 cfu/mL within 2 h at 20% (v/v) concentration | High susceptibility | Low pH disrupts bacterial metabolism and inhibits growth | Tomita et al. (1997) | |
| Staphylococcus aureus | Crude methanolic extract | Inhibitory rate of 50%; Amoxicillin used as positive control; DMSO (<1%) as negative control | -- | -- | (Tomita et al., 1997; Sumit et al., 2008; Maryam et al., 2015; Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2017; Chakma et al., 2023) | |
| Shaking extraction (ethanol: water = 80:20), 50 mg/mL | Highest inhibition zone reached 28.00 mm; range: 10.33–28.00 mm | 10.33–28.00 mm; classified as high activity (>14 mm) | -- | |||
| Fermented hot water extract (30%–40% v/v) | Significant inhibition after 2 h | Approx. 30%–40% (v/v); moderately sensitive | Acidic pH weakens cell wall synthesis, causing structural disruption | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | SRa (25%, acetone extract of S. rebaudiana) | No synergy with Phi6 phage; OD decreased under static condition | MIC: 25%; growth inhibition under static conditions | Weak toxicity; activity reduced under dynamic condition | (Sumit et al., 2008; Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2017; Chakma et al., 2023; Stachurska et al., 2023) | |
| Shaking extraction (ethanol:water = 50:50), 25–50 mg/mL | Inhibition zone up to 14.67 mm; range: 6.27–14.67 mm | 6.27–14.67 mm; moderate activity (10–14 mm) | -- | |||
| Pseudomonas syringae | SRm (25%, Methanol) | No synergy with Phi6; flat growth curve | -- | Limited impact on growth; no lysis or synergy | Stachurska et al. (2023) | |
| Enterococcus faecalis | Shaking extraction (ethanol:water = 50:50), 50 mg/mL | Inhibition zone up to 18.00 mm; range: 6.67–18.00 mm | 6.67–18.00 mm; moderate to high activity (≥14 mm) | -- | (Sumit et al., 2008; Chakma et al., 2023) | |
| Bacillus subtilis | Crude methanolic extract | Inhibitory rate of 51.8%; Amoxicillin used as positive control; DMSO (<1%) as negative control | Inhibitory rate: 51.8% (qualitative) | -- | (Tomita et al., 1997; Sumit et al., 2008; Maryam et al., 2015) | |
| water extract | Inhibition zone approximately 8–9 mm | mild activity (8–9 mm) | -- | |||
| Vibrio parahaemolyticus | Fermented hot water extract | <10% (v/v) extract significantly reduced colony count within 2 h; highly sensitive | Not numerically specified (highly sensitive) | Extremely sensitive to acidic pH; low concentration causes cell lysis | Tomita et al. (1997) | |
| Bacillus cereus | Fermented hot water extract | <10% (v/v) extract showed significant inhibition, but spores may survive | Not numerically specified; sensitive (spore resistance noted) | Acidic pH affects vegetative cells; spores highly resistant but partially inactivated | ||
| Yersinia enterocolitica | Fermented hot water extract | 30%–40% (v/v) concentration caused significant inhibition within 2 h | Not numerically specified (moderately sensitive) | Acidic pH inhibits physiological activity and disrupts cell membrane integrity | ||
| Listeria monocytogenes | Stevia ethanolic extract | Inhibitory at 62.5–500 µg/mL; MIC = 125 µg/mL, MBC = 250 µg/mL; inhibited biofilm formation (P < 0.01), damaged membranes, caused nucleic acid leakage | MIC = 125 µg/mL; MBC = 250 µg/mL | Damages cell membrane, inhibits biofilm formation, induces nucleic acid leakage | Belda-Galbis et al. (2014) | |
| Fungi | Candida albicans | Water, ethanol, and acetone extracts | Acetone extract showed strongest inhibition; more effective than water extract | Inhibition zone: 17–21 mm (acetone); lower for other solvents | Likely related to cell wall or membrane disruption | (Jayaraman et al., 2008; Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2017) |
| Trichophyton rubrum | Leaf extract | Maximum inhibition zone of 12 mm at a concentration of 7.5 µg/mL | Inhibition zone: 9–12 mm | Possibly disrupts cell membrane and/or cell wall integrity | (Jayaraman et al., 2008; Sumit et al., 2008) | |
| A.niger | Petroleum Ether | Inhibition (16 mm zone of inhibition | 16 mm | Antifungal activity |
Sumit et al. (2008)
Sumit et al. (2008) |
|
| P. chrysogenum | Cyclohexane | Inhibition (14 mm zone of inhibition) | 14 mm | Antifungal activity | ||
| A. solani | Chloroform | Inhibition (16 mm zone of inhibition) | 16 mm | Antifungal activity | ||
| Viruses | Rotavirus | Methanolic leaf extract | Maximum inhibition ∼71.6% at 200 µg/mL; no significant cytotoxicity observed | IC50 ≈ 95 µg/mL; CC50 > 300 µg/mL | May interfere with viral adsorption/entry; activates host defenses | Takahashi et al. (2001) |
| Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 | Polysaccharide fractions (SFW, SSFK) | Both fractions significantly inhibited HSV-1 infection. SFW: EC50 = 0.3 µg/mL, SI = 917; SSFK: EC50 = 18.8 µg/mL, SI > 53. Reduced plaque size post-entry. | SFW: EC50 = 0.3 µg/mL; SSFK: EC50 = 18.8 µg/mL; SI > 50 | Interferes with viral adsorption, penetration, glycoprotein expression, and cell-to-cell transmission; heparin-mimetic competition | (Ceole et al., 2020; Aghababaei and Hadidi, 2023) | |
| Parasites | Trypanosoma cruzi | DCM extract of Stevia aristata | 100 µg/mL killed 100% of parasites in vitro within 96 h; EC50 = 47.9 µg/mL; significantly reduced cyst weight in vivo (5.47 → 2.55 g, p < 0.05) | EC50 = 47.9 µg/mL; total kill at 100 µg/mL (96 h) | -- | Albani et al. (2022) |
| Entamoeba histolytica | Stevioside (STV) | IC50 = 9.53 mM (24 h); induced cell membrane irregularity, autophagic vacuole formation, and morphological abnormalities; reduced liver damage in vivo | IC50 = 9.53 mM (24 h) | Disrupts membrane structure, induces autophagy-like vacuoles, inhibits cysteine protease expression and proteolytic activity | Ortega-Carballo et al. (2024) |
S. rebaudiana acetone extract → SRa.
S. rebaudiana methanol extract → SRm.
Activity level based on inhibition zone diameter.
<7 mm: No activity.
7–10 mm: Low activity.
10–14 mm: Moderate activity.
14 mm: High activity.
Antibacterial Index (Abl): A comparative indicator of antimicrobial potency based on inhibition zone diameter (Abl ∝ zone size).