Table 1.

Medieval Arab-Islamic Classification of Sleep Disorders and Modern Equivalents.

Medieval Term/Description	Source/Physician	Modern Equivalent	Pathophysiological Insight	Recommended Therapy
Al-kābūs (sleep paralysis, nightmare)	Al-Rāzī, Akhawayni	Sleep paralysis	Gastric vs. brain-centered causes	Dietary regulation, herbal remedies, and bloodletting
Subāt (torpor, hypersomnia)	Ibn al-Jazzār	Hypersomnia, narcolepsy	Excess cold/phlegm in the brain	Humoral balancing, lifestyle modification
Insomnia with fever/meningitis	Al-Rāzī	Insomnia secondary to illness	Neurological/psychiatric link	Disease-specific therapy, sleep hygiene
Nocturnal enuresis	Al-Rāzī	Nocturnal enuresis	Bladder sphincter relaxation	Fluid restriction, herbal remedies, and urethral medications
Symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea (back sleeping, snoring, choking)	Ibn Sīnā	Obstructive sleep apnea	Tongue relaxation, muscle weakness	Side sleeping, positional therapy