Table 8.

Stages of bead formation in LMD, defined by energy density (E) and resulting morphology.

Stage	Description	Energy Density [J/mm]	Photo	Key Features
One	No deposition: Insufficient E to melt powder	<50		Powder scatters, no bonding
Two	Detached Bead: Partial melting, balling defects	50-100		Globular beads, weak substrate adhesion
Three	Attached Bead: Full melting, sound bead formation	100-200		Continuous, defect-free layer