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. 2025 Sep 24;11(39):eady6386. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.ady6386

Fig. 1. MiNVs for oral delivery of insulin by natural IgG-FcRn interaction–mediated transepithelial transport.

Fig. 1.

(A) Schematic of MiNVs for oral insulin delivery via IgG-FcRn interaction–mediated transepithelial transport and release in the liver microenvironment. (B) Representative TEM images of Miexos, Lipos, and MiNVs. Scale bars, 100 nm. (C) Size distribution of Miexos (purple), Lipos (blue), and MiNVs (red) measured by DLS. (D) ζ Potential characterization of Miexos, Lipos, and MiNVs (n = 6 independent experiments, mean ± SD). (E) Emission spectra of FITC-labeled insulin-loaded Lipos, DiI-labeled Miexos, free mixture of the two and MiNVs with excitation at 420 nm, respectively. (F) Nanoflow cytometric analysis of the nanoparticle distribution to demonstrate that coextrusion effectively fused Miexos and Lipos to obtain MiNVs. APC channel for Did-labeled Miexos; FITC channel for FITC-labeled insulin-loaded Lipos. (G) CLSM images of the free mixture of Miexos and Lipos and the MiNVs. Red for DiD-labeled Miexos; green for FITC-insulin–loaded Lipos. Scale bar, 20 μm. (H) Protein SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) patterns of one insulin, two Lipos, three Miexos, and four MiNVs were shown by silver staining as well as CD81 and IgG expression by Western blot (WB). (I and J) Representative nanoflow cytometry analysis of surface IgG characterization of Miexos, Lipos, and MiNVs (box region, the proportion of nanoparticles carrying IgG on the surface) (I) and quantitative data for the corresponding three groups of nanoparticles (n = 3 independent samples, mean ± SD) (J). (K) Representative TEM images of Miexos, Lipos, and MiNVs immunogold-labeled with anti-Bovine IgG antibodies. Arrowheads indicate 10-nm gold nanoparticles. Scale bar, 100 nm. (L) Venn diagram of protein expression profiles of five different batches of MiNVs analyzed using proteomics. Statistical significance was evaluated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis. P > 0.05, not significant; ***P < 0.001, and ****P < 0.0001.