Factors associated with ultra-processed foods consumption: cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy

Abstract

Objective

Industrialization and urbanization increase the consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs); decreasing cooking skills and low food literacy make healthy eating difficult. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of individuals’ cooking and preparation skills and food literacy levels in relation to UPF consumption and to contribute to strategies that will promote healthy eating.

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 3572 adults (2413 females, 1159 males) aged 18–65 years selected through snowball sampling in Ankara, Türkiye. Data were collected via a web-based survey including demographic information, self-reported anthropometric measurements, and validated scales: The High Processed Food Consumption Screening Questionnaire (with higher scores indicating greater consumption of UPFs), the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale (where higher scores indicate better cooking and food preparation skills), and the Food Literacy Tool (with higher scores reflecting higher levels of food literacy).

Results

The Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption score was negatively correlated with the total and subdimension scores of the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale, as well as with the total score of the Food Literacy Tool. (p < 0.001). According to the linear regression analysis, gender, age, the total score of the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale, and the total score of the Food Literacy Tool were significant predictors of UPF consumption (p < 0.05). Significant differences were observed between individuals with low and high levels of UPF consumption in terms of age, gender, marital status, total score on the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale, and total score on the Food Literacy Tool (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

In conclusion, given the significant associations of cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy factors with UPF consumption, public health interventions targeting healthy eating habits, improving culinary skills, and increasing awareness of food processing and nutritional quality should be developed. Furthermore, more research is needed in this area to reduce UPF consumption and improve overall diet quality.

Introduction

The spread of industrialization and urbanization has significantly transformed the nutritional habits of communities. This transformation has resulted in a growing preference for ready-made foods that are generally ultra-processed and high in sugar, salt, and saturated fat [1]. According to the NOVA food classification system [2], these foods, which have serious impacts on dietary habits and public health at the global level, are included in the category of “ultra-processed foods” (UPFs) [1, 2]. UPFs are defined as formulations produced as a result of industrial processes and generally consisting of materials for industrial purposes, and thus represent a relatively new category in food classification [3]. Industrial preparations containing five or more ingredients for specific uses, such as anti-humectants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers, and flavor simulators, are used in manufacturing processes [2]. The main purpose of these foods [4], which are presented ready for heating or direct consumption, is to create products that are durable, accessible, useful, highly delicious, and ready to eat or drink [5].

Preparation of UPFs often involves simple operations such as combining different products, customizing pre-packaged meal components, or reheating ready-to-eat meals [6, 7]. Thanks to these features, UPFs easily adapt to the fast pace of modern life by saving time and effort [6, 8]. Increasing global time constraints, long working hours, and longer commutes are leading to reduced rates of home cooking and, as a result, increased UPF consumption [9]. The reasons for this increase include the decrease in individuals’ interest in preparing meals [10], the gradual decline of home food preparation skills over time, and the increasingly infrequent use of these skills [11, 12]. A study conducted in the United Kingdom found that home meal preparation skills and more frequent use of these skills were negatively associated with the percentage of energy obtained from UPFs [11]. Similarly, in another study conducted in the Northeastern states of America, it was stated that household members who work long hours and have limited food preparation skills prefer ready-heated processed foods [13]. This situation is seen as an important obstacle to overcome in promoting healthy nutrition among individuals and societies [14, 15]. However, it is noteworthy that research on home food preparation and cooking skills is still limited and is generally limited to high-income countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia [6, 14, 15]. Therefore, more comprehensive studies covering different communities are needed.

Food literacy interventions are needed to educate individuals and communities about the characteristics and hazards of UPFs, correct nutritional misinformation, and develop behavioral skills required at the point of purchase and for preparation [16]. The term “food literacy” is defined as the set of knowledge, skills, and behaviors required to organize, manage, select, prepare, and consume food in a healthy way in order to meet the nutritional needs of individuals and improve health [17, 18]. Studies have shown that some components of food literacy, particularly food conceptualization, nutrition, and cooking skills, are associated with diet quality [19–21]. Although both UPF consumption and food literacy are linked to diet quality, the relationship between food literacy and UPF consumption is not entirely clear [1]. It has been suggested that the increase in UPFs intake may be due to low food literacy [22], and it has been stated that increasing food literacy may be an effective method to reverse this situation. In this context, it is thought that educating communities about the characteristics of UPF consumption and its effects on diet quality may play an important role in reducing UPF consumption [16]. Although there is limited research on the relationship between UPF consumption and food literacy, household surveys in Brazil show an increasing trend in the consumption of processed and UPF foods, while the consumption of fresh and minimally processed foods continues to decline [23]. This consumption pattern, although influenced by various socioeconomic factors, suggests that Brazilian consumers have difficulty classifying foods correctly. Additionally, health-positive qualities have been attributed to various UPFs that have little or no health benefits [24]. These findings suggest that high food literacy may play an important role in promoting healthy eating habits and correct food choices. Therefore, increasing food literacy is considered a promising strategy to reduce UPF consumption [1], although the number of studies in our country is thought to be insufficient, and the relationship between UPFs and food literacy needs to be clarified.

In this context, considering that UPFs are durable, accessible, useful, quite tasty, and practical products [25], the factors affecting the preference for these foods need to be better understood. In the literature, there is a paucity of studies examining the effect of the relationship between cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy on UPF consumption. Previous studies were limited to certain countries [14, 15], and the results were inconclusive [1]. Therefore, the primary objectives of this study were to examine the factors affecting individuals’ UPF consumption, to assess the role of food literacy in reducing UPF consumption, and to investigate the association of poor food preparation skills or underuse of these skills with UPF consumption. It is expected that our study, which addresses these concepts with a large sample size, will guide future research and lay the groundwork for the creation of policies that encourage healthy nutrition.

Materials and methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted among 3572 adults (2413 female, 1159 male) aged 18–65 years between January 2025 and March 2025. The research data were collected via a web-based survey form (Google Forms) created by the researchers and using the snowball sampling method from individuals residing in the Ankara province of Türkiye, using the convenience sampling method. Initially, 300 primary participants, representative of the target population, were recruited through the researchers’ personal networks. These primary participants then referred additional eligible individuals for participation. The survey data were collected via the social media tools Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram. In order to prevent the same individual from completing the survey more than once, the “only answer once” feature of Google Forms was activated. Thus, each participant could only respond via one Google account. The inclusion criteria of the study were as follows: Individuals between the ages of 18–65, who had internet access, who selected the ‘I agree to participate voluntarily’ option after reading the information text on the home page of the survey, and who filled out the survey completely were included in the study. No financial or non-material incentives were offered to the participants. Participation was completely voluntary. Prior to the commencement of the study, ethical approval was obtained from the University of Health Sciences Gulhane Scientific Research Ethics Committee (Decision No: 2025/167, January 2025). Demographic characteristics of the individuals (gender, age, education status, marital status, income status and working status) were collected through the survey form. Anthropometric data (body weight and height) were obtained based on the participants’ self-reports. The participants’ UPF consumption habits, cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy levels were evaluated with the help of scales that have been validated and reliable and scale information is included below.

Anthropometric measurements

Anthropometric measurements, including body weight and height, were obtained through self-report provided by the participants. Instructions on how to accurately measure and report anthropometric data were included in the questionnaire. BMI was calculated by dividing body weight (kg) by the square of height (m²). A BMI of less than 18.50 kg/m² was classified as underweight, 18.50–24.99 kg/m² as normal weight, 25.00–29.99 kg/m² as overweight, and 30.00 kg/m² or higher as obese [26].

Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption

The Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption was used to assess food consumption. The Turkish validity and reliability study of the scale was conducted by Erdoğan Gövez et al. in 2024 [27]. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.65. The scale consists of 11 food items (full-fat dairy products, processed meats, fats and oils, sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverages, desserts, snacks, ready-to-eat products, refined grains, sauces, optionally added items, fried foods consumed outside the home or prepared at home). If the participant answers ‘yes’ to consumption, each food item is given 1 point, while if the participant answers ‘no’, each food item is given 0 points. The total score varies between 0 and 11. Scores of 6 and above on the scale are considered as high consumption. As the score increases, UPF consumption also increases.

Cooking and food preparation skills

Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale was used to evaluate cooking and food preparation skills. The Turkish validity and reliability study of this scale, which Lavelle and colleagues developed in 2017 [28], was conducted by G. Keleş and M.A. Ok in 2021 [29]. The scale consists of two sub-dimensions, cooking skills, and food preparation skills, and a total of 33 items. As a result of the reliability analysis, the Cronbach’s α coefficient of the cooking skills sub-dimension was determined as 0.90 and the food preparation skills sub-dimension as 0.92. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the entire scale was calculated as 0.954 [29]. This scale, which was developed as a method that can contribute to the reduction of obesity, contains 14 items in the cooking skills sub-dimension and 19 items in the food preparation skills sub-dimension. The scale, which includes a Likert-type assessment tool, is scored with an 8-point system ranging from 1 (very bad) to 7 (very good) and including the option “never/rarely”. Participants are asked to rate how good they are at each skill, and the scores given between 1 and 7 for the skills used are added up. Participants who select the option “never/rarely” receive 0 points. The total score increases mean s that cooking and food preparation skills have increased [28].

Food literacy

The Food Literacy Tool was used to assess food literacy. This tool was developed by Rosas and colleagues in 2022 [30], and its Turkish validity and reliability study was conducted by Öztürk, Y.E., and colleagues in 2024 [31]. The tool consists of 24 items and five factors: F1: Cooking skills, F2: Production and quality, F3: Selection and planning, F4: Environmentally safe, and F5: Origin. It utilizes a 5-point Likert-type scoring system, with each item rated between 0 and 3 points. The total score and sub-factor scores are obtained by summing the scores of the relevant items. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the overall scale was reported as 0.927, while the coefficients for the sub-factors—cooking skills, production and quality, selection and planning, environmentally safe, and origin—were 0.871, 0.883, 0.903, 0.763, and 0.866, respectively [31].

Statistical analysis

All analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (version 22.0). Descriptive statistics, including mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage, were used to evaluate the data. Data distribution was assessed using histograms, the coefficient of variation, skewness, kurtosis, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Relationships between variables were determined using Pearson correlation coefficient. Differences in mean values between groups were evaluated with the Independent t-test. Chi-square analysis was used to compare qualitative data between groups. Linear regression analysis was performed to predict HPFs consumption. The independent variables included in the multiple linear regression analysis were determined using the Backward method. Results were interpreted at a 95% confidence interval with a significance level set at p < 0.05. Figure 1 shows the correlation matrix between UPF consumption, cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy.

Fig. 1.

The correlation matrix between ultra-processed food consumption, cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy

Results

The general characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1. Most of the participants were female (67.6%). The mean age was 33.7 ± 13.5 years and the mean BMI was 25.2 ± 4.8 kg/m². According to the educational status, 59.5% of them were university graduates, and according to the marital status, 53.4% ​​were married. According to the socioeconomic status, 24.8% of the participants had less income than their expenses, and 18.6% had more income than their expenses. Most of the participants (57.1%) were unemployed. The mean score obtained from the Highly Processed Food Consumption Screening Questionnaire was found to be 4.9 ± 3.0. While the total average score of the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale was 140.3 ± 52.6, when its sub-dimensions were examined, the average score for Cooking Skills was 59.8 ± 24.7 and the average score for Food Preparation Skills was 80.5 ± 31.0. The total average score obtained from the Food Literacy Tool was 41.3 ± 12.7, and the average scores according to the sub-dimensions were determined as follows: kitchen skills 14.4 ± 5.3, production and quality 5.4 ± 2.2, selection and planning 10.9 ± 4.3, environmental safety 7.7 ± 2.3 and origin 2.8 ± 1.6. It was observed that 42.0% of the participants had high UPF consumption, while 58.0% had low UPF consumption.

Table 1.

General characteristics of individuals

Variables	X̅±SD
Age (years)	33.7 ± 13.5
BMI (kg/m2)	25.2 ± 4.8
Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption score	4.9 ± 3.0
Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale Total score Cooking Skills score Food Preparation Skills score	140.3 ± 52.6 59.8 ± 24.7 80.5 ± 31.0
Food Literacy Tool Total score Culinary Competencies score Production and Quality score Selection and Planning score Environmentally Safe score Origin score	41.3 ± 12.7 14.4 ± 5.3 5.4 ± 2.2 10.9 ± 4.3 7.7 ± 2.3 2.8 ± 1.6
	Number (%)
Gender Female Male	2413 (67.6) 1159 (32.4)
Education level Primary school Middle school High school University Master’s degree/ Doctorate	309 (8.6) 219 (6.1) 760 (21.3) 2125 (59.5) 159 (4.5)
Marital status Single Married	1663 (46.6) 1909 (53.4)
Income status Income less than expenses Income equal to expenses Income more than expenses	885 (24.8) 2021 (56.6) 666 (18.6)
Working Status Yes No	1534 (42.9) 2038 (57.1)
Ultra-Processed Food Consumption High Consumption Low Consumption	1499 (42.0) 2073 (58.0)

BMI: body mass index

Table 2 shows the relationships between the Highly Processed Food Consumption Screening Questionnaire, Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale, and Food Literacy Tool. A negative and significant correlation was found between the Highly Processed Food Consumption Screening Questionnaire score and the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale total score, Cooking Skills and Food Preparation Skills sub-dimensions (r= -0.035; p = 0.039, r= -0.036; p = 0.034, r= -0.038; p = 0.024, respectively). Negative significant relationships were found between the High Processed Food Consumption Screening Questionnaire score and the Food Literacy Scale total and sub-dimension scores (r=–0.220; p < 0.001, r=–0.172; p < 0.001, r=–0.201; p < 0.001, r=–0.190; p < 0.001, r=–0.203; p < 0.001, r=–0.105; p < 0.001, respectively). A statistically positive and significant relationship was found between the total score of the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale and the subscale scores (r = 0.930, p < 0.001; r = 0.956, p < 0.001). Similarly, a positive and significant correlation was found between the sub-dimensions of the scale (r = 0.781, p < 0.001). In addition, positive and significant relationships were found between the total and sub-dimension scores of the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale and the total and sub-dimension scores of the Food Literacy Tool (p < 0.001). Positive, strong and significant relationships were found between the sub-dimensions of the Food Literacy Tool (p < 0.001). Figure 1 visualizes the correlation matrix between the key variables examined in this study, including UPF consumption, cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

The relationship between screening questionnaire of highly processed food consumption, cooking and food Preparation skills scale and food literacy tool

		Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale			Food Literacy Tool
	Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption score	Total score	Cooking Skills score	Food Preparation Skills score	Total score	Culinary Competencies score	Production and Quality score	Selection and Planning score	Environmentally Safe score	Origin score
Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption score	-
Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale
Total score	r= -0.035 p  = 0.039*	-
Cooking Skills score	r= -0.036 p  = 0.034*	r = 0.930 p  < 0.001*	-
Food Preparation Skills score	r= -0.038 p  = 0.024*	r = 0.956 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.781 p  < 0.001*	-
Food Literacy Tool
Total score	r= -0.220 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.433 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.383 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.432 p  < 0.001*	-
Culinary Competencies score	r= -0.172 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.488 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.470 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.454 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.847 p  < 0.001*	-
Production and Quality score	r= -0.201 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.197 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.165 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.207 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.690 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.435 p  < 0.001*	-
Selection and Planning score	r= -0.190 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.310 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.250 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.332 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.882 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.590 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.543 p  < 0.001*	-
Environmentally Safe score	r= -0.203 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.342 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.284 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.360 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.815 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.612 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.543 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.661 p  < 0.001*	-
Origin score	r= -0.105 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.161 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.119 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.186 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.681 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.374 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.431 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.692 p  < 0.001*	r = 0.518 p  < 0.001*	-

Pearson correlation, *p < 0.05

The evaluation of the characteristics of individuals according to UPF consumption is shown in Table 3. While the average age of individuals with high UPF consumption was found to be lower (29.5 ± 11.7 years), the average age of participants with low UPF consumption was found to be higher (36.7 ± 14.0 years). A statistically significant difference was found in gender distribution between low and high consumption groups (p < 0.05). UPF consumption was found to be high in 64.2% of female participants and 35.8% of male participants. There were more male participants in the group with high UPF consumption compared to the group with low UPF consumption. A statistically significant difference was found between low and high consumption according to marital status (p < 0.05). High UPF consumption was found to be higher in married participants (66.3%) compared to single participants (33.7%). No significant difference was found between the groups in terms of education status, income status, employment status and BMI. A significant difference was found between the groups in terms of the total and sub-dimension scores of the Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale (p < 0.05). It was determined that the total and subscale scores of this scale were lower in individuals with high UPF consumption (136.2 ± 50.0, 58.3 ± 24.5, 77.9 ± 30.0). Additionally, it was found that the total and sub-dimension scores of food literacy were significantly lower in individuals with high UPF consumption (p < 0.05).

Table 3.

Evaluation of individuals’ characteristics according to ultra-processed food consumption

Variables	Ultra-Processed Food Consumption		p-value
	High Consumption (n = 1499)	Low Consumption (n = 2073)
Age (years)	29.5 ± 11.7	36.7 ± 14.0	< 0.001*a
Gender Female Male	962 (64.2) 537 (35.8)	1451 (70.0) 622 (30.0)	< 0.001*
Education level Primary school Middle school High school University Master’s degree/ Doctorate	150 (10.0) 78 (5.2) 298 (19.9) 807 (53.8) 166 (11.1)	252 (12.2) 139 (6.7) 462 (22.3) 1114 (53.7) 106 (5.1)	0.229
Marital status Single Married	505 (33.7) 994 (66.3)	1158 (55.9) 915 (44.1)	< 0.001*
Income status Income less than expenses Income equal to expenses Income more than expenses	370 (24.7) 827 (55.2) 302 (20.1)	515 (43.4) 1194 (46) 364 (28.8)	0.217
Working Status Yes No	634 (42.3) 865 (57.7)	900 (43.4) 1173 (56.6)	0.504
BMI (kg/m2)	25.7 ± 4.8	25.6 ± 4.7	0.231a
Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale score Total score Cooking Skills score Food Preparation Skills score	136.2 ± 50.0 58.3 ± 24.4 77.9 ± 29.1	143.3 ± 54.1 61.0 ± 24.8 82.3 ± 32.1	< 0.001*a 0.001*a < 0.001*a
Food Literacy Tool score Total score Culinary Competencies score Production and Quality score Selection and Planning score Environmentally Safe score Origin score	38.5 ± 11.7 13.5 ± 5.1 5.0 ± 2.1 10.1 ± 3.9 7.2 ± 2.1 2.7 ± 1.5	43.3 ± 12.9 15.1 ± 5.3 5.7 ± 2.2 11.4 ± 4.4 8.0 ± 2.3 2.9 ± 1.6	< 0.001*a < 0.001*a < 0.001*a < 0.001*a < 0.001*a < 0.001*a

BMI: Body mass index, ^aIndependent t-test, other analaysis Chi-square, *p < 0.05

Linear regression analysis was performed to evaluate the factors that could affect the Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption score, and the model was found to be significant (R2 = 0.351; p < 0.001). It was determined that gender, age, Food Literacy Tool total score and Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale total score affected the model (p < 0.001) (Table 4).

Table 4.

Linear regression model for ultra-processed food consumption prediction

Model	Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption score
	Standardized Beta	Unstandardized B	t	%95 CI	p-value
Gender	0.070	0.453	4.111	0.237, 0.669	< 0.001*
Age (years)	-0.279	-0.062	-17.508	-0.069, -0.055	< 0.001*
Food Literacy Tool total score	-0.208	-0.050	-11.859	-0.058, -0.041	< 0.001*
Cooking and Food Preparation Skills Scale total score	-0.095	0.005	-5.216	0.003, 0.008	< 0.001*
	R2 = 0.351; p < 0.001*

Variable values: Gender (Male = 1, Female = 0), CI: Confidence Interval, *p < 0.05

Discussion

This study evaluated the impact of individuals’ cooking and preparation skills and food literacy levels on UPF consumption. The findings indicated that younger age, male gender, lower food literacy, and limited cooking and food preparation skills were associated with higher UPF consumption. Additionally, a statistically significant difference in marital status was observed between individuals with high and low levels of UPF consumption.

Many factors such as income increase, urbanization, changing labor force structures, demographic changes in developed and developing countries and increasing global time shortage lead to an increase in UPF consumption [9, 32]. As they save time and labor, these foods easily adapt to the fast pace of modern life and are frequently preferred [6, 8]. However, increasing UPF consumption may negatively affect diet quality [10]. Considering the relationship of cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy with diet quality [19–21], it is thought that these factors may play an important role in shaping UPF consumption.

The findings of the study show that gender is positively associated with UPF consumption and that male individuals have higher UPF consumption compared to those with low UPF consumption. Consistent with these findings, another study found that male individuals consume significantly more UPFs than females [33]. Similar results were observed in a different study conducted in 2024, and it was determined that the subjects consuming UPF were mostly males [34]. This difference between genders seems to be related to the fact that women are most likely to consume food prepared at home and least likely to eat at fast food restaurants, especially in low-income countries [35]. In addition, traditionally, kitchen skills have generally been passed on to women, and they have taken on the responsibility of preparing meals at home [36]. It is known that cooking at home is associated with better diet quality [37], and reduces UPF consumption in the United Kingdom [11]. This may explain the higher UPF consumption in men. However, some studies in the literature have revealed that women consume more UPFs [34, 38]. One of the main reasons for this is the increase in the number of working women today, making ready meals and ready-to-heat foods more convenient and attractive options [39]. The fact that men are more likely to evaluate unhealthy foods as healthy than women has been cited as one reason for gender differences [40]. In addition, differences in eating habits, nutritional behaviors, and health beliefs between genders appear to be effective in UPF consumption. It is also likely that the degree and pattern of gender inequality in dietary consumption differs between high-income countries and low- or middle-income countries [41].

The study revealed that the average age of individuals with high UPF consumption was lower than that of those with low UPF consumption. Similarly, the results of our linear regression model also showed a negative relationship between age and UPF consumption, indicating the existence of intergenerational differences in dietary habits [42]. Similar results were observed in studies conducted in the literature, and it was determined that UPF consumption decreased with age [43–45]. It has been found that the consumption of these foods, which have high energy content and low nutritional value, increases especially in late adolescence and young adulthood [46]. The decrease in UPF consumption with age can be explained by age-related changes in food preferences. Individual and environmental factors such as young individuals’ increased energy requirements, socialization needs and low motivation for healthy eating, and insufficient knowledge, time, and equipment to purchase and cook healthy foods affect these preferences [47–50]. In addition, young individuals’ high sensitivity to advertisements, which are food marketing tools, and their greater openness to new food products and a new lifestyle cause them to prefer such foods more frequently [41]. In this context, age-specific nutrition education and interventions that encourage healthy food choices to reduce UPF consumption in young individuals are of great importance [51]. Such initiatives can contribute to young people’s making more conscious choices in the long term by ensuring they acquire healthy eating habits.

The study examined the effect of marital status on high and low UPF consumption. The results obtained show that, similar to other studies [44, 52], married individuals have higher UPF consumption. This situation is associated with the fact that married individuals are among sensitive demographic groups [52]. However, some studies conducted in the literature have revealed that single individuals consume more UPFs [34, 53, 54]. It is thought that these differences may be due to factors such as lifestyle, eating habits, and responsibility sharing. While married individuals may tend to prefer practical and quickly prepared foods due to their busy work schedule and family responsibilities, single individuals may increase their UPF consumption due to reasons such as low motivation to cook, individual nutritional preferences, and being influenced by their social environment. More studies are needed to explain these differences.

Food literacy is a multidimensional concept that encompasses the individual’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors regarding food. This skill not only improves individual health and nutritional quality, but also environmental awareness [55]. In this study, the relationship between food literacy and UPF consumption was evaluated. In the literature, it is stated that individual factors such as age, education level and lifestyle affect UPF consumption [56]; and also that the consumption of these products decreases as the level of knowledge about UPFs definition increases [57]. As a matter of fact, a study conducted in Switzerland showed that nutritional knowledge, concerns about natural foods and cooking skills reduced UPF consumption [58]. However, differences in perception among individuals regarding the concept of UPFs may play a determining role in food preferences [59]. In this study, a significant negative relationship was found between the total food literacy score and UPF consumption. This situation shows that individuals make food choices according to different priorities and that lack of knowledge can cause excessive consumption by making portion control difficult [24, 60, 61]. Additionally, inadequate food literacy; It creates difficulty in understanding technical terms, foreign expressions and additives on product labels [62]; which is considered one of the factors increasing UPF consumption.

A negative relationship was found between the sub-dimensions of food literacy, namely culinary skills, production and quality knowledge, selection and planning ability, environmental safety and origin knowledge, and UPF consumption. This finding suggests that developing all aspects of food literacy can reduce UPF consumption. UPFs are generally produced by intensive industrial processing of plant or animal-based ingredients; they contain high energy density, glycemic load, trans fat, simple sugar and sodium; on the other hand, they are insufficient in terms of fiber, protein, potassium and micronutrients. This unbalanced structure can negatively affect diet quality and trigger inflammatory processes [63, 64]. In this context, individuals’ lack of sufficient information about nutritional quality is thought to be a factor that increases UPF consumption.

It is known that UPF consumption threatens not only individual health but also environmental sustainability [65]. The production of these products leads to environmental problems such as packaging waste, long transportation distances, greenhouse gas emissions and high resource use [66, 67]. In this study, it was observed that UPF consumption decreased as the consumption of environmentally friendly foods increased. Therefore, preferring seasonal, local and lightly processed products is important for both individual health and environmental sustainability [67]. However, encouraging healthy eating behaviors is a complex process. A deeper understanding of how individuals make food choices and the factors that affect these choices is required for the success of this process [68].

Food choice is an important component of food literacy; it includes understanding the origin of the product, evaluating label information, and choosing reliable products [69]. Food preferences are affected by many factors, from individual reactions and perceptions to socioeconomic and environmental factors [3], and this directly affects UPF consumption [68]. In this study, a negative relationship was found between healthy food preferences and UPF consumption. It was observed that individuals who are more conscious about nutritional content prefer UPFs less; It has been observed that factors such as product reliability and healthiness are effective in purchasing decisions [13, 25]. In addition, attractive packaging designs, flavor-enhancing formulas, and aggressive marketing strategies of UPFs increase the tendency towards these products [5, 25]. A better understanding of these factors will contribute to the development of intervention strategies that promote healthy eating behaviors [25].

Food preparation and cooking skills are a multifaceted structure that includes individuals’ level of knowledge, self-confidence and attitudes in this field. Although there are limited studies in the literature [11, 70], it has been shown that the development of these skills increases fresh fruit and vegetable consumption and is associated with healthy eating habits [70]. Research findings reveal that there is a significant inverse relationship between these skills and UPF consumption. This finding supports previous research highlighting the role of relevant skills in reducing UPF consumption [67, 70].

It is known that individuals with inadequate skills tend to turn to practical and ready-made foods; this is associated with low fruit and vegetable consumption, poor general health status, deteriorating psychological well-being, and increased risk of obesity [70, 71]. Individuals who prepare regular meals at home prefer fresh and less processed products, which makes them more conscious about their nutritional content and health effects. This suggests that the relevant skills not only increase awareness, but also support a shift towards healthier choices. Several studies conducted in Türkiye also support this relationship. A recent study involving university-aged young adults found that high levels of cooking and food preparation skills were significantly associated with greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet. These findings suggest that such skills not only contribute to reducing the consumption of UPFs, but also facilitate the adoption of healthier food choices [72]. Similarly, a study published in 2023 demonstrated the positive impact of these skills on healthy nutrition attitudes [73]. Overall, such evidence indicates that enhancing food preparation skills among young individuals in Türkiye may promote both greater nutritional awareness and healthier eating behaviors. However, with globalization, there has been a significant decline in food preparation and cooking skills compared to the past, and the time devoted to this process has decreased [70]. Technological developments such as microwave ovens, increased participation of women in the workforce, and widespread use of ready-made products containing UPFs at home have been effective in this change [74]. A study conducted in the UK found that individuals with higher food preparation skills provided approximately 3–4% of their daily energy intake from fewer UPFs, creating a difference of 57–75 kcal. This amount corresponds to 40–50% of a 330 ml can of cola and is not negligible [11]. The findings of this study were similar, and it was observed that individuals with advanced food preparation and cooking skills consumed less UPFs. Therefore, individuals developing the habit of preparing meals at home most days of the week and using these skills may be an effective approach to reduce UPF consumption. However, more research is needed to define, measure and support these skills [11]. Acquiring these skills through applied training has the potential to reduce individuals’ dependence on UPFs.

The main strength of this study is that it comprehensively evaluates the effects of cooking and food preparation skills and food literacy on UPF consumption. In this respect, the study makes a significant contribution to the literature and sheds light on strategies that can be implemented to promote healthy nutrition. In addition, the statistical power of the results obtained has increased thanks to the large sample size. On the other hand, this study has some limitations. First of all, the cross-sectional design of the study does not allow for the establishment of a causal relationship between the variables. Therefore, prospective longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate the direction of the observed relationships and the cause-effect context. In addition, in this study, BMI data were collected through self-report, and no significant relationship was found between BMI and the study outcomes; therefore, the impact of BMI was not discussed. However, considering the accuracy of self-reported data and the potential influence of BMI on individuals’ dietary preferences, these limitations should be taken into account in future research. Due to the high proportion of female participants in the sample group (approximately 67%), and limited the representativeness of male participants’ UPF consumption patterns and skills. The findings obtained did not fully reflect the gender balance. Variables such as working hours and nutrition knowledge are acknowledged in the literature as potential factors influencing dietary behaviors. However, these variables were not included in the present study, as they were not part of the data collection process. This is considered a limitation of the study and should be taken into account when interpreting the findings. Including such variables in future studies may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting dietary behaviors. In addition, psychological factors that may influence UPF consumption (such as stress and emotional eating) were not evaluated in the study. However, it is known that these factors can also have significant effects on UPF consumption. Finally, the fact that the study was conducted only with individuals living in Ankara did not allow for the consideration of cultural and socioeconomic variables in different regions. Therefore, to generalize these results to the whole of Türkiye, future studies should include participants from diverse regions and sociodemographic backgrounds. Future studies should include more diverse longitudinal designs and objective measurements to overcome these limitations.

Conclusion

As a result, this study revealed that cooking and food preparation skills, and food literacy factors affect UPF consumption. In addition, age, gender, and marital status were determined to be factors associated with UPF consumption. The findings contributed to a better understanding of the effects of culinary skills and the ability to understand, evaluate, and apply the information required for healthy nutrition on UPF consumption. Inadequate cooking and preparation skills and low food literacy levels can encourage UPFsconsumption, which requires minimal knowledge and skills, creating an unhealthy alternative for individuals. UPF consumption should be considered not only from the perspective of individual health but also from the perspective of public health policies and interventions. In this context, it is important to expand community-based education programs to promote healthy eating habits, limit access to high-calorie, low-nutrient foods, improve cooking and preparation skills, and increase food literacy.

Author contributions

Ö.M.Ç: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing; Ü.G: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft; E.M.E: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft; G.A.Ş: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft.

Funding

There was no funding or sponsoring organisation for this paper.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and confidentiality reasons but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was conducted with the approval of the University of Health Sciences Gulhane Scientific Research Ethics Committee (Decision No: 2025/167, January 2025). Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.