Table 1.

Key features and contributions of design thinking (DT), discrete event simulation (DES), and design of experiments (DOE).

Approach	Key features	Contribution in integration
DT	✓ Human-centered, iterative process	✓ Provides innovative, user-centric solutions
	✓ Empathy, ideation, and prototyping	✓ Identifies critical areas for improvement
	✓ Collaborative, cross-functional approach	✓ Identifies critical areas for improvement
DES	✓ Simulates individual events in complex systems	✓ Identifies bottlenecks and tests interventions
	✓ Detailed analysis of resources and patient flows	✓ Provides insights on operational efficiency and resource allocation
	✓ Captures variability and real-time processes	✓ Evaluates performance under stress (resilience testing)
DOE	✓ Systematic testing of factors and interactions	✓ Optimizes resource allocation (staff, beds)
	✓ Factorial design for multivariable analysis	✓ Assesses the impact of resource configurations to support data-driven decisions on the best interventions for ED improvement