Table 2.

Natural obesity compounds and target key pathways.

Compound	Source	Target enzyme	Hormone modulated	Mechanism	References
Berberine	Golden seal	ACC	Adiponectin↑	AMPK activation→ ACC phosphorylation; ↑fatty acid oxidation	(25)
Curcumin	Turmeric	FAS, SCD-1	Leptin↑	Binds FAS active site; ↓SREBP-1c maturation; ↑leptin sensitivity	(9)
EGCG	Green tea	SCD-1	Insulin↓	↓SCD-1 via miR- 34a; improves insulin signaling	(24)
Resveratrol	Grapes	SIRT1	GLP-1↑	Activates SIRT1→ ↓PPARγ; ↑GLP-1 secretion	(47)
Fucoxanthin	Brown seaweed	PPARγ, ACC	Irisin↑	↑UCP1 in fat; irisin-mediated thermogenesis	(46)

↑, increase/upregulation; ↓, decrease/downregulation; →, “leads to” or “results in”; -, uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) (thermogenic).