Abstract
Single-person households have been continuously increasing in recent times and are reporting more negative mental health outcomes. However, rather than whether single-person households are related to mental health, it is necessary to examine what characteristics of these households are associated with mental health. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the association between social isolation and depression in single-person households and explore the differences across different age groups. We employed the 2017 Community Health Survey and study population were included adults aged 19 and above living alone. Chi-square tests were conducted to compare the differences between groups with and without depression according to age groups and multiple logistic regression analysis was used to investigate the association between depression and social isolation. Socioeconomic factors, and health-related factors were controlled as confounding factors. The study found that social isolation had an association with depression in young, middle-aged, and elderly individuals, with the middle-aged group showing the strongest association. Especially, among the three variables constructing social isolation, economic activity showed the most significant association with depression for middle-aged and elderly individuals. Based on these research findings, we suggest that support for social isolation for single-person households is necessary, particularly for the middle-aged and elderly population.
Keywords: Single-person household, Depression, Social isolation
Key messages
① What is known previously?
Single-person households were reported to show negative psychological outcomes compared to multiple-person households.
② What new information is presented?
Social isolation in single-person households is significantly associated with depression, and the strength of this association varies across different age groups. Notably, middle-aged individuals living alone exhibited the highest level of association between social isolation and depression.
③ What are implications?
Following the trend of social changes, single-person households are continuously increasing in various age groups. Therefore, it is necessary to examine research on single-person households across different age groups, not only focusing on the elderly.
Introduction
Single-person households are defined as households wherein a single person independently manages their livelihood, including cooking and sleeping [1]. Owing to urbanization and individualist trends in modern societies, these households are increasing globally—especially in high-income countries. In 2019, the average rate of single-person households in the European Union countries was 33.4%, with the percentage exceeding 40% in nations such as Norway, Finland, and Sweden [2]. In Asia, after Japan, Republic of Korea (ROK) has the highest prevalence of single-person households—from 31.6% in 2020, it is projected to rise to 37.3% by 2047 [3].
Studies have suggested that compared with multi-person households, single-person households are more liable to unhealthy lifestyles, such as smoking, excessive drinking, and poor dietary habits [4,5]; have poorer self-rated health (SRH) [6]; and poorer physical health, including a higher incidence of chronic diseases [7]. In terms of mental health, single-person households often experience greater negative outcomes compared to other household types. Individuals living alone remain at a higher risk of psychological distress [8], increased levels of depression [9,10], and negative impacts related to common mental disorders (CMDs) [11].
However, the mental health challenges in single-person households may be more intimately linked to social isolation within these households than the living arrangements per se. The degree of social cohesion in single-person households could significantly impact depression levels [9]. For example, a study conducted in Singapore identified that single-person households were not significantly associated with depressive mood after adjusting for loneliness [12]. This finding suggests the significance of examining mental health in single-person households in relation to social relationships and degrees of isolation, as opposed to focusing on the living arrangement.
Studies have shown that depression manifests differently across various age groups. Older adults (age ≥70 years) have poorer abilities to recognize depression symptoms compared to younger individuals (aged 18–24 years) [13]. Prevalence treatment of depression varied by age [14], with younger individuals generally respondingbetter to treatment than middle-aged individuals [15]. These differences across age groups are also evident in single-person households. Recent trends reveal a diversification in the age distribution of single-person households because of delayed first marriage, increased number of individuals who voluntarily remain single, and increased number of divorced or separated households (Figure 1) [3]. Nonetheless, existing research has predominantly focused on older adults living alone [9,10,12,16], highlighting the need for greater exploration of the growing number of young and middle-aged single-person households. One study categorized single-person households in Seoul as follows: gold generation, reserve army of labor, unstable singles, and silver generation, revealing the diverse nature of single-person households across different ages, economic conditions, and sociocultural backgrounds [17].
Figure 1. Proportion of one-person household by sex and age group (Statistics Korea, 2019) [3].
Studies that compared single-person households with other household types employed different reference groups, including all the other different household types [12,18], spouse-only households [9,10], and married couples [19]. However, the relative depression level of single-person households is determined based on the reference group in such cases. This hinders the identification of specific factors that cause mental health issues within single-person households.
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the association between the degree and type of social isolation and depression among single-person households and examine whether these associations vary by age group.
Methods
1. Participants
We used the data from the 2017 Community Health Survey (CHS) conducted by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. The CHS is administered to adults aged 19 years or above to collect baseline data at the si-, gun-, and gu- levels to establish community healthcare plans. It encompasses factors such as health status, health behaviors, vaccination and screenings, morbidities, healthcare utilization, and socioeconomic factors. The 2017 survey was administered from August 16, 2017, to October 13, 2017.
Of the 228,381 respondents of the 2017 CHS, 4,758 with missing responses to any one of the study variables were excluded. From the remaining 223,623 respondents, 28,619 single-person households were included in our final analysis.
2. Definition of Variables
Our study defined a single-person household as those who marked “single-person household” for the question, “What is your household type?”—excluding those who marked “I have a spouse (I’m living with my spouse)” for the question, “What is your marital status (including de facto marriage)?” Social isolation could be independent of the subjective loneliness perceived by individuals. The comparison of loneliness is difficult because of its subjective nature, whereas social isolation is an objective indicator that enables interpersonal comparisons. Previous studies have noted that loneliness and isolation are both associated with mental health [20,21] and mutually associated. After adjusting for social isolation, the loneliness–death association no longer remained significant. However, social isolation was significantly associated with death even after adjusting for loneliness [20]. Essentially, social isolation may be a more objective indicator than loneliness to examine mental health. Moreover, as the CHS does not collect data on loneliness, we defined social isolation based on social networks (including contact and meeting with family, and friends) and social activities (including religion, community activities, and clubs) referring to Shankar et al. [22], who distinguished social isolation from loneliness. Furthermore, a study reported that subjective perceptions of social activities and society differed according to economic activity status. In ROK, economic activity was associated with social exclusion [23], and participation in the senior job project altered social capital in the older-adult population [24]. Based on these findings, we included economic activity status in the definition of social isolation in consideration of social networking and exchanges through economic activities. Therefore, social isolation was measured based on social network, social activity, and economic participation. A score of 0 was allotted for not having any of the three, 1 for having one, 2 for having two, and 3 for having all three to grade social isolation from 0 to 4.
Depression was assessed using the self-report depression screening tool called Patient Health Questionnaire-9 developed by Kroenke et al. (1999) [25]. This tool comprises nine items, with the total score ranging from 0 to 27. Referring to a previous study, we used a score of 10 as the cutoff, where a score of ≥10 was defined as having depression [26].
Control and stratification variables were set to sociodemographic factors and health behavior-related factors known to be associated with depression, namely, sex, age (19–39 years/40–64 years/≥65 years), educational level (elementary school or lower/ middle school/high school/college or higher), marital status (divorced, widowed, separated/never married/married-living together), and average monthly household income (<1 million KRW/1–1.99 million KRW/2–2.99 million KRW/≥3 million KRW). Health behavior-related factors included current smoking status (yes/no), current drinking status (yes/no), and moderate-intensity or higher physical activity (yes/no). SRH was considered a control variable and divided into good, moderate, and poor.
3. Analysis
In this study, we analyzed the association of social isolation and other parameters with depression within single-person households by first analyzing the differences in the general characteristics between depressed and non-depressed groups by age using chi-square tests. Furthermore, the association between social isolation and depression was analyzed using the logistic regression analysis, and the results were observed after stratification by sex and age. In our study, all statistical analyses were performed using the SAS 9.4 software (SAS Institute Inc.). For the regression analysis, we employed specific commands tailored to our complex sampling design, considering stratification factors (kstrata), clustering variables (jijum_cd), and survey weights (wt). The level of statistical significance was set at 5%.
Results
Table 1 presents the differences in characteristics according to depression in single-person households by age group. In the young-adult group (19–39 years), there were significant differences in sex, educational level, average monthly household income, economic participation, social network, social participation, social isolation, SRH , and smoking status between the depressed and non-depressed groups (p<0.05). There were no significant differences in marital status, drinking status, and moderate-intensity or higher physical activity. In the middle-aged group (40–64 years), all variables—except current drinking status—significantly differed between the depressed and non-depressed groups. In older adults, all variables—except sex, marital status, and current drinking status—significantly differed between the depressed and non-depressed groups.
Table 1. Comparison of characteristics according to depression and age groups among living alone.
| Characteristic | Young adults (19–39 yr) | Middle ages (40–64 yr) | Elderly (≥65 yr) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Without depression (n=3,935) | With depression (n=209) |
Without depression (n=7,521) | With depression (n=482) |
Without depression (n=15,209) | With depression (n=1,263) |
|||
| Sex | ||||||||
| Male | 2,442 (62.1) | 94 (45.0) | 3,508 (46.6) | 194 (40.2) | 2,417 (15.9) | 212 (16.8) | ||
| Female | 1,493 (37.9) | 115 (55.0) | 4,013 (53.4) | 288 (59.8) | 12,792 (84.1) | 1,051 (83.2) | ||
| p-value | <0.001* | 0.006* | 0.405 | |||||
| Education | ||||||||
| ≤Elementary school | 11 (0.3) | 1 (0.5) | 1,651 (22.0) | 175 (36.3) | 12,438 (81.8) | 1,093 (86.5) | ||
| Middle school | 47 (1.2) | 2 (1.0) | 1,384 (18.4) | 116 (24.1) | 1,268 (8.3) | 79 (6.3) | ||
| High school | 1,492 (37.9) | 102 (48.8) | 2,885 (38.4) | 152 (31.5) | 1,094 (7.2) | 73 (5.8) | ||
| ≥College | 2,385 (60.6) | 104 (49.8) | 1,601 (21.3) | 39 (8.1) | 409 (2.7) | 18 (1.4) | ||
| p-value | 0.016* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Marital status | ||||||||
| Divorced/separated/widowed | 135 (3.4) | 12 (5.7) | 5,395 (71.7) | 383 (79.5) | 15,029 (98.8) | 1,241 (98.3) | ||
| Never married | 3,800 (96.6) | 197 (94.3) | 2,126 (28.3) | 99 (20.5) | 180 (1.2) | 22 (1.7) | ||
| p-value | 0.078 | <0.001* | 0.083 | |||||
| Household income (10,000 KRW) | ||||||||
| <100 | 680 (17.3) | 48 (23.0) | 2,617 (34.8) | 367 (76.1) | 13,196 (86.8) | 1,194 (94.5) | ||
| 100–199 | 1,031 (26.2) | 69 (33.0) | 2,463 (32.7) | 66 (13.7) | 1,537 (10.1) | 59 (4.7) | ||
| 200–299 | 1,479 (37.6) | 57 (27.3) | 1,367 (18.2) | 34 (7.1) | 305 (2.0) | 7 (0.6) | ||
| ≥300 | 745 (18.9) | 35 (16.7) | 1,074 (14.3) | 15 (3.1) | 171 (1.1) | 3 (0.2) | ||
| p-value | 0.004* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Economic participation | ||||||||
| No | 688 (17.5) | 49 (23.4) | 1,953 (26.0) | 317 (65.8) | 10,448 (68.7) | 1,055 (83.5) | ||
| Yes | 3,247 (82.5) | 160 (76.6) | 5,568 (74.0) | 165 (34.2) | 4,761 (31.3) | 208 (16.5) | ||
| p-value | 0.028* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Social networka) | ||||||||
| Low | 2,041 (51.9) | 124 (59.3) | 3,504 (46.6) | 319 (66.2) | 4,233 (27.8) | 541 (42.8) | ||
| High | 1,894 (48.1) | 85 (40.7) | 4,017 (53.4) | 163 (33.8) | 10,976 (72.2) | 722 (57.2) | ||
| p-value | 0.0353* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Social participation | ||||||||
| No | 1,505 (38.2) | 98 (46.9) | 2,290 (30.4) | 276 (57.3) | 6,299 (41.4) | 701 (55.5) | ||
| Yes | 2,430 (61.8) | 111 (53.1) | 5,231 (69.6) | 206 (42.7) | 8,910 (58.6) | 562 (44.5) | ||
| p-value | 0.012* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Social isolation | ||||||||
| 4 (high) | 152 (3.9) | 17 (8.1) | 432 (5.7) | 157 (32.6) | 1,651 (10.9) | 316 (25.0) | ||
| 3 | 1,049 (26.7) | 65 (31.1) | 1,704 (22.7) | 162 (33.6) | 4,819 (31.7) | 488 (38.6) | ||
| 2 | 1,680 (42.7) | 90 (43.1) | 3,043 (40.5) | 117 (24.3) | 6,389 (42.0) | 373 (29.5) | ||
| 1 (low) | 1,054 (26.8) | 37 (17.7) | 2,342 (31.1) | 46 (9.5) | 2,350 (15.5) | 86 (6.8) | ||
| p-value | <0.001* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Self-rated health | ||||||||
| Bad | 215 (5.5) | 51 (24.4) | 1,633 (21.7) | 344 (71.4) | 8,050 (52.9) | 1,082 (85.7) | ||
| Good/moderate | 3,720 (94.5) | 158 (75.6) | 5,888 (78.3) | 138 (28.6) | 7,159 (47.1) | 181 (14.3) | ||
| p-value | <0.001* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Current smoking status | ||||||||
| Yes | 1,405 (35.7) | 96 (45.9) | 2,327 (30.9) | 197 (40.9) | 945 (6.2) | 109 (8.6) | ||
| No | 2,530 (64.3) | 113 (54.1) | 5,194 (69.1) | 285 (59.1) | 14,264 (93.8) | 1,154 (91.4) | ||
| p-value | 0.003* | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
| Current alcohol drinking | ||||||||
| Yes | 1,156 (29.4) | 73 (34.9) | 2,063 (27.4) | 121 (25.1) | 1,296 (8.5) | 97 (7.7) | ||
| No | 2,779 (70.6) | 136 (65.1) | 5,458 (72.6) | 361 (74.9) | 13,913 (91.5) | 1,166 (92.3) | ||
| p-value | 0.0869 | 0.2664 | 0.3019 | |||||
| Physical activity | ||||||||
| No | 2,831 (71.9) | 153 (73.2) | 5,803 (77.2) | 420 (87.1) | 13,140 (86.4) | 1,141 (90.3) | ||
| Yes | 1,104 (28.1) | 56 (26.8) | 1,718 (22.8) | 62 (12.9) | 2,069 (13.6) | 122 (9.7) | ||
| p-value | 0.692 | <0.001* | <0.001* | |||||
Unit: pearson (%). a)Dichotomized based on median social network in study population. *Statistical significance at the p<0.05 level.
To identify the association between social isolation and depression within single-person households, we examined the odds ratio (OR) for depression according to social network, economic participation, and social activity; relevant data are available in the CHS. Additionally, we analyzed whether the association between social isolation—a factor encompassing all three variables—and depression improves depending on the degree of social isolation (Table 2). After adjusting for the sociodemographic and health-related factors known to be associated with depression, the adjusted OR (AOR) for depression was significantly higher with no economic activity in the middle-aged (AOR=1.88, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]=1.51–2.34) and older-adult groups (AOR=1.68, 95% CI=1.42–1.99). Furthermore, depression was significantly associated with weak social networks in the young-adult (AOR=1.38, 95% CI=1.05–1.82), middle-aged (AOR=1.55, 95% CI=1.26–1.90), and older-adult (AOR=1.51, 95% CI=1.32–1.72) groups. Depression was associated with social activity in the middle-aged (AOR=1.76, 95% CI=1.44–2.16) and older-adult (AOR=1.37, 95% CI=1.20–1.57) groups but not in the young-adult group. In terms of the AOR for depression according to social isolation—a factor encompassing all three variables—the AOR for depression increased with increasing degree of social isolation in all age groups. The AOR for depression was the highest at 4.11 (95% CI=2.75–6.14) in the middle-aged group, followed by the older-adult (AOR=2.88, 95% CI=2.14–3.88) and young-adult groups (AOR=1.97, 95% CI=1.15–3.36).
Table 2. Association between social related factors and isolation and depressive symptom among Korean living alone.
| Characteristic | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 19–39 yr | 40–64 yr | ≥65 | 19–39 | 40–64 | ≥65 | ||
| Economic participationa) | |||||||
| No | 1.36 (1.02–1.80)* | 5.98 (4.98–7.19)* | 2.35 (2.00–2.77)* | 1.16 (0.66–2.04)* | 1.88 (1.51–2.34)* | 1.68 (1.42–1.99)* | |
| Yes | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | |
| Social networka) | |||||||
| Low | 1.21 (0.93–1.57) | 1.73 (1.44–2.09)* | 1.76 (1.55–2.00)* | 1.38 (1.05–1.82)* | 1.55 (1.26–1.90)* | 1.51 (1.32–1.72)* | |
| High | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | |
| Social activitya) | |||||||
| No | 1.33 (1.03–1.71)* | 2.96 (2.48–3.53)* | 1.94 (1.71–2.21)* | 1.05 (0.80–1.39) | 1.76 (1.44–2.16)* | 1.37 (1.20–1.57)* | |
| Yes | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | |
| Social isolationb) | |||||||
| 4 (high) | 2.43 (1.56–3.78)* | 15.24 (10.98–21.16)* | 4.57 (3.41–6.12)* | 1.97 (1.15–3.36)* | 4.11 (2.75–6.14)* | 2.88 (2.14–3.88)* | |
| 3 | 1.48 (1.01–2.15)* | 3.72 (2.68–5.17)* | 2.34 (1.77–3.10)* | 1.35 (0.88–2.05) | 1.91 (1.32–2.78)* | 1.71 (1.29–2.27)* | |
| 2 | 1.24 (0.85–1.81) | 1.48 (1.09–2.01)* | 1.37 (1.03–1.82)* | 1.20 (0.82–1.75) | 1.13 (0.82–1.57) | 1.22 (0.91–1.63) | |
| 1 (low) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | |
OR=odds ratio; CI=confidence interval. a)Adjusted for socioeconomic factors and health related factors (sex, education, marital status, household income, smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, and self-rated health)+each social relationship context (economic and social activity and network). b)Adjusted for socioeconomic factors and health related factors (sex, education, marital status, household income, smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, and self-rated health). *Statistical significance at the p<0.05 level.
Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the association between social isolation and depression within single-person households by sex and age using the 2017 CHS data. One key finding of this study is that there is an evident association between social isolation and depression within single-person households which means the depression increases with increasing social isolation and the association is particularly strongest in the middle-aged population.
Specifically, we divided the study population into four groups depending on the degree of social isolation and identified that the AOR for depression increased with the increasing degree of social isolation in the young-adult, middle-aged, and older-adult populations. These results support previous findings that a higher level of social isolation negatively impacts mental health [27-32]. According to previous studies, single-person households feature diverse socioeconomic characteristics [33] as well as different levels of social isolation. Single-person households with favorable social networks and social coherence exhibited more positive mental health outcomes than those with poor social networks and social coherence [9,16]. However, extremely few studies have examined single-person households and social isolation together; most have analyzed single-person households as part of social isolation or analyzed the two concepts separately [18,30,34]. Moreover, the social isolation–depression association within single-person households has been rarely investigated.
Additionally, most studies on single-person households have primarily included older adults living alone [8-10,12,16,27,30,35]. Extremely few studies have examined the mental health of young-adult and middle-aged single-person households. In this study, we divided single-person households based on age group and identified that depression was most significantly associated with social isolation in the middle-aged population (AOR=4.11, 95% CI=2.75–6.14). Nevertheless, the association was significant in the older-adult (AOR=2.88, 95% CI=2.14–3.88) and young-adult (AOR=1.97, 95% CI=1.15–3.36) populations. These results highlight the need to include young-adult and middle-aged populations in research and policy support for single-person households. The association was the strongest in the middle-aged population. As reported, employment is relatively lower and the unemployment rate is higher in middle-aged single-person households in ROK compared to other age groups [33]. Moreover, our study demonstrated that economic participation—a factor related to social isolation—was most significantly associated with depression in the middle-aged population (AOR=1.88, 95% CI=1.51–2.34). Therefore, it is essential to implement policies to facilitate job opportunities for middle-aged single-person households as well as identify and provide support for middle-aged single-person households who lack social networks and do not participate in social activities.
Additionally, the association between social isolation and depression was weaker in the young-adult population compared to other age groups. Regarding the prevalence of depression according to social isolation, it was higher in the group with the lowest social isolation in this age group: young adults, 17.7%; middle-aged, 9.5%; older adults, 6.8%. This suggests that factors other than social isolation may also influence depression in young adults. One study reported that young-adult single-person households tend to be dichotomized as economically stable or unstable, as evidenced by high poverty and unemployment rates [33]. Regarding the association with depression, economic activity and income significantly impacted depression compared to other factors, such as educational level and health [36] in this age group. This necessitates examining other factors that predict depression in young-adult single-person households.
This study is significant in that it examined the association between social isolation and depression by age group within single-person households. Nevertheless, the study has a few limitations. First, the control variables were not evenly distributed across age groups because the same criteria were applied to categorize socioeconomic factors for comparisons across age groups. Second, while it would be ideal to consider both objective social relationships and an individual’s subjective experience of social isolation [37,38] to determine social isolation, we could not assess the subjective aspect because of the absence of relevant questions in the CHS. Third, although various risk and protective factors, such as negative personal experiences (e.g., trauma) and psychological tendencies (e.g., positive mental health) influence depression, we could not consider these factors because of the lack of relevant data in the CHS. To address this, we used “trust in neighbors” available in the data source as a proxy for psychological factors and adjusted for this variable in our analysis. The results showed that adjusting for this variable did not significantly impact the results in the middle-aged and older-adult populations; however, it did lead to non-significant results across all variables in the young-adult population. Future studies should explore the effects of psychological factors and social trust on depression among young single-person households. Fourth, owing to the inherent limitations of a cross-sectional study, our results only indicate associations between social isolation and depression in single-person households and cannot establish causality. A previous study has suggested that the impact of depression diminishes over time in single-person households [18], calling for cohort studies to examine changes in single-person households over time. Fifth, as the study included adults aged 19 years or above, it is possible that college students included in the young-adult population may not be markedly influenced by the economic participation examined in our study. We could not fully account for the impact of various social relationships within academic settings other than social activities and social networks.
The continuous increase in single-person households in recent years represents a significant change in family structure, leading to broader societal transformations [39,40]. Single-person households are particularly at risk of socioeconomic challenges and diminished social networks compared to multi-person households, highlighting the need for sustained focus on these populations. Dying alone—an emerging societal issue—predominantly occurs in single-person households [41,42], and numerous studies during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic have shown that individuals living alone often experience worse mental health outcomes than those in multi-person households [30,43,44].
The social isolation and mental health issues prevalent among single-person households are not mere medical concerns. They require cultural and social changes in addition to support from relevant welfare services. The concept of Relational Welfare being discussed in the field of social welfare could be a solution to the mental health challenges faced by the growing number of single-person households. The Social Prescribing Model implemented in the United Kingdom could be one approach. It links healthcare and social services to enable individuals to receive various services within their communities (e.g., exercise programs, financial counseling, nutrition management, etc.) [45,46].
Finally, most existing studies as well as services related to single-person households have predominantly focused on older adults. However, the increasing number of single-person households among younger and middle-aged individuals requires attention. Further research is needed on the various public health problems (e.g., mental and physical health problems) afflicting single-person households.
Acknowledgments
This article is a revision of the first author's master's thesis from Korea University Graduate School.
Declarations
Ethics Statement: This research was conducted with approval from the Institutional Review Board for Bioethics at Korea University (IRB Number: KUIRB-2021-0284-01). Since this research utilized secondary data, the requirement for informed consent was waived.
Funding Source: This study was supported by Korean Society of Epidemiology funded by a grant from the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Conflict of Interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization: MJH, MK. Data curation: MJH. Formal analysis: MJH. Funding acquisition: MJH. Methodology: MJH, MK. Project administration: MJH. Supervision: MK. Writing – original draft: MJH. Writing – review & editing: MJH, MK.
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