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. 2025 Sep 29;15:33551. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-18436-6

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Effect of stimulation frequency on EP characteristics across recording regions. The slopes from the GLM illustrate the relationship between stimulation frequency and (a) PPa, (b) PPd, and (c) TP. All measures are normalized to their values at 55 Hz. Across all metrics, GPi (red) exhibits the steepest slopes, indicating a stronger modulation of EP characteristics by stimulation frequency compared to STN (pink) and VO (blue). The weakest frequency-dependent effect is observed for PPd in VO.