An ethnobotanical study on medicinal food plants used by the Kazakh people in Altay, Xinjiang, China

Abstract

Background

The Kazakh people of Altay, Xinjiang, possess rich traditional knowledge associated with medicinal food plants (MFPs), shaped by their nomadic pastoralist heritage and the unique mountain-grassland ecosystems of the region. However, this biocultural heritage remains insufficiently documented and is increasingly threatened by human’s economic activities, rapid globalization, climate change, and generational knowledge loss. This study aimed to record MFPs, evaluate their cultural and ecological relevance, and assess their conservation challenges.

Methods

Ethnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in 2012 and 2017 across Altay Prefecture. Data were obtained through semi-structured interviews with 100 key informants, including traditional healers, herders, and merchants, complemented by focal group discussions, field observations, and voucher specimen collection. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Herbarium of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnomedicine (XJNM). Use-value (UV) index was calculated to assess the relative importance of each species. Traditional knowledge, edible applications, and sustainability concerns were systematically documented.

Results

A total of 118 MFP species were identified, belonging to 37 families and 85 genera. Rosaceae (12.7%), Asteraceae (7.6%), Polygonaceae (7.6%) and Fabaceae (7.6%) were the most represented families. Herbaceous plants dominated (69.5%), with fruits (33.9%) and roots (20.3%) being the primary edible parts. Species with the highest medicinal UV included Glycyrrhiza uralensis (UV = 0.56), Taraxacum officinale (UV = 0.41), and Codonopsis pilosula (UV = 0.34). MFPs were primarily used to treat digestive (26.1%) and respiratory (17.7%) ailments, reflecting the health challenges associated with a nomadic lifestyle. These plants are also deeply embedded in cultural practices, including seasonal dietary customs (e.g., sea buckthorn jam), spiritual rituals, and ecological taboos such as phenology-based harvest timing. Key threats to MFPs sustainability include overharvesting (30.5% of species are now cultivated to mitigate pressure), climate change impacts on alpine habitats, and the erosion of traditional knowledge, as only 9% of informants with rich knowledge of MFPs were under the age of 30.

Conclusions

Kazakh MFPs represent a culturally integrated “medicine-food continuum” intricately adapted to local ecological conditions. Sustainable utilization requires the incorporation of traditional knowledge—such as phenology-informed harvesting practices—into conservation strategies, the promotion of community-led cultivation of vulnerable species, and the documentation of associated cultural practices. Given accelerating environmental and sociocultural shifts, urgent efforts are needed to preserve this fragile biocultural heritage.

Background

For millennia, edible plants—due to their vast biological diversity and rich phytochemical profiles—have played a central role in both nutrition and traditional medicine [1, 2]. In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the health benefits of plant-based diets within integrated healthcare frameworks. However, widespread plant domestication has led to a reduction in crop diversity and a corresponding decline in phytochemical content [3, 4]. This trend presents a challenge for promoting the consumption of a broader spectrum of nutritionally rich plants to support public health.

Traditional medicinal plants, often used in food-like preparations, offer unique advantages over modern pharmaceuticals, including complex chemical composition, suitability for long-term use, and alignment with local dietary cultures. Such plants have been explored for their therapeutic potential in managing diseases like cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and obesity [5–7]. Expanding their use requires addressing knowledge dissemination, safety validation, and efficacy across diverse dietary and medical contexts [8–10].

China is among the world’s most biodiverse countries, particularly in terms of medicinal flora [11, 12]. Ethnobotanical surveys report that ethnic minorities in China have historically used over 7736 species of traditional medicinal plants [13], reflecting the diversity of regional food cultures, ecological zones, and health practices [14]. The Kazakh ethnic group, one of China’s long-standing minority groups, is primarily concentrated in northern Xinjiang. This region features some of China’s most pristine natural grasslands [15] and is a key conservation area for nationally protected wild plants [16]. Nearly 90% of Kazakhs reside in dispersed pastoral settlements, where their nomadic livelihoods have cultivated a distinctive ethnobotanical knowledge system centered on plant utilization and ecological stewardship [17].

Globally, ethnobotanical studies have consistently highlighted the profound link between biodiversity, cultural diversity, and traditional knowledge systems. Research among pastoral and indigenous communities, from the Daur in Inner Mongolia to the Afar in Ethiopia, underscores how such knowledge is intricately adapted to local ecologies and is increasingly recognized for its potential contributions to food security, nutrition, and community health [18, 19]. However, this biocultural heritage is universally threatened by rapid socioeconomic transformation, climate change, and intergenerational knowledge loss [20, 21].

The Altay Mountains in northern Xinjiang host a diverse range of habitats and are home to Kazakh nomadic pastoralists, whose cultural and economic survival is closely tied to local biodiversity. For centuries, they have relied on plants for food, healing, and cultural expression. However, their traditional knowledge is rapidly being undermined by globalization, climate variability, and shifting land-use patterns. Despite the critical role of medicinal food plants in Kazakh life, systematic documentation remains scarce.

Furthermore, comparative studies are essential not only for assessing the novelty of reports but also for understanding the dynamics of traditional knowledge systems and identifying core elements of nomadic plant use [19, 20]. Such cross-cultural comparisons, as seen in studies across the Himalayan region and Central Asia [20, 23], reveal patterns of cultural convergence and divergence, offering insights into how different societies adapt to similar ecological challenges and shaping effective strategies for biocultural conservation.

As demonstrated in studies of other ethnic groups in China, such as the Hakka people in Guangxi [22] and the Daur in Inner Mongolia [19], comprehensive ethnobotanical surveys are crucial for preserving vulnerable traditional knowledge systems. This study seeks to fill that gap by (i) cataloging Kazakh MFPs and their applications; (ii) analyzing cultural and ecological drivers of plant selection and usage; (iii) comparing these practices with those of other nomadic groups in Central Asia and Northwestern China to identify cultural specificities and commonalities; and (iv) assessing threats to knowledge transmission and biodiversity conservation to propose strategies for safeguarding this biocultural heritage.

Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in Altay Prefecture, located in northern Xinjiang at the southern areas of the Altay Mountains and the northern edge of the Junggar Basin, spanning coordinates 85°31′73″–91°01′15″ E and 45°00′00″–49°10′45″ N [24]. The region is characterized by a typical temperate continental cold climate, with an average annual precipitation of 100–200 mm [25]. Altay contains the largest natural forest area in Xinjiang, covering 2.667 million hectares. It boasts extensive grasslands totaling 9.87 million hectares, accounting for 83.4% of its land area and 11.0% of China’s total grazing lands. As one of China’s major pastoral zones, Altay is a key region for animal husbandry [26]. The total population of Altay Prefecture is approximately 647,600 inhabitants, with the Kazakh ethnic group constituting the majority (51.4%), followed by Han (41.9%), Hui (4.3%), and other ethnic minorities such as Mongol and Uyghur (2.4%) [27]. The predominant languages spoken include Kazakh and Mandarin Chinese, reflecting the region’s ethnic composition. This multi-ethnic composition and cultural diversity make Altay an significant area for studying ethnobotanical knowledge systems. The diverse topography, ranging from the low-altitude Junggar Basin to the high-altitude alpine meadows of the Altay Mountains, supports a variety of ecosystems including forests, grasslands, wetlands, and deserts. This ecological heterogeneity nurtures rich plant diversity, which forms the foundation of the traditional medicinal and dietary practices of the Kazakh people.

The study area included one county-level city and six counties: Altay City, Burqin County, Habahe County, Jeminay County, Fuhai County, Fuyun County, and Qinghe County (Fig. 1). This study covered all seven county-level units to ensure a comprehensive representation of the Kazakh ethnobotanical knowledge across the prefecture (Table 1).

Fig. 1.

Study site. a Location of study sites; b, c Semi-structured interviews

Table 1.

Characterization of the study sites and informant profiles in Altay Prefecture

County/City	Representative Village	Latitude (N)	Longitude (E)	Altitude (m)	Dominant Ethnicity	No. of Informants	Age Range	Gender (M/F)	Occupation (Herders/Healers/Merchants/Others)
Altay City	Lasite Township	47°52′25.25’’	88°7′29.74’’	850–1100	Kazakh	15	< 30 (1), 31–50 (5), 51–60 (6), > 60 (3)	11/4	6 / 3 / 2 / 4
Burqin County	Hemu Hanas Township	48°34′15.96’’	87°26′24.51’’	1100–1400	Kazakh	16	< 30 (2), 31–50 (6), 51–60 (5), > 60 (3)	12/4	7 / 3 / 3 / 3
Habahe County	Tereke Township	48°28′31.08’’	86°42′4.15’’	600–900	Kazakh	14	< 30 (1), 31–50 (5), 51–60 (5), > 60 (3)	11/3	7 / 2 / 1 / 4
Jeminay County	Jeminay Town	47°29′45.65’’	85°37′19.76’’	900–1200	Kazakh	14	< 30 (1), 31–50 (6), 51–60 (4), > 60 (3)	11/3	5 / 4 / 3 / 2
Fuhai County	Fuhai Town	47°6′34.25’’	87°29′8.91’’	500–800	Kazakh	14	< 30 (1), 31–50 (5), 51–60 (5), > 60 (3)	11/3	6 / 3 / 2 / 3
Fuyun County	Tiemaike Township	47°13′25.79’’	89°44′37.86’’	1200–1500	Kazakh	14	< 30 (1), 31–50 (5), 51–60 (5), > 60 (3)	11/3	4 / 5 / 1 / 4
Qinghe County	A'ale Town	46°44′46.32’’	90°19′36.56’’	1100–1300	Kazakh	13	< 30 (2), 31–50 (7), 51–60 (3), > 60 (1)	9/4	6 / 3 / 3 / 1
Total						100	< 30 (9), 31–50 (39), 51–60 (33), > 60 (19)	76/24	41/23/15/ 21

Data collection

Resource survey and sample collection

In 2012 and 2017, a multidisciplinary team comprising ethnobotanists, taxonomists, and local Kazakh collaborators conducted systematic resource surveys across Kazakh-inhabited areas of Xinjiang. A combination of plot-based sampling and transect surveys was employed to ensure comprehensive documentation of species distribution. Field investigations included the collection of diverse MFPs (Fig. 2), with careful recording of habitat details, GPS coordinates, and ecological context. Photographic documentation was also conducted. Plant specimens were collected from various habitats, including riverbanks, forest edges, and grazing lands, across multiple villages in Altay. Voucher specimens (e.g., Pinus sibirica: 654324240908001LY) were deposited at the Herbarium of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ethnomedicine (XTNM).

Fig. 2.

Parts of plants used in Kazakh medicine at study area (A Pinus sibirica (Ledeb.) Turcz., B Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. mongolica Rousi, C Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., D Polygonum alpinum All., E Trollius altaicus C. A. Mey., F Grossularia acicularis (Sm.) Spach., G Origanum vulgare L., H Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam., I Rhaponticum carthamoides (Willd.) Iljin)

Ethnobotanical interviews

A total of 100 informants participated in the study, including 23 traditional healers, 41 herders, 15 merchants, and 21 others. Of these, 52% were aged 50–80, and 39% were aged 30–50 (Table 1). Semi-structured interviews were conducted to document plant names (in Kazakh and Mandarin), uses, preparation methods, dosage, and perceived efficacy. Interviews were conducted primarily in the Kazakh language, with supplementary clarification in Mandarin when necessary, depending on participant preference. Oral prior informed consent was obtained from all informants, following the International Society of Ethnobiology’s Code of Ethics.

Data collection on frequently used MFPs

To gain deeper insights into frequently used MFPs, data were collected from two sources: (1) primary fieldwork—including interviews, focus groups, and direct observation—and (2) a review of relevant literature and ethnobotanical records [28]. A standardized questionnaire was administered to all 100 participants, including traditional medicine practitioners, herbal plant gatherers, and local villagers. Traditional healers, recognized as custodians of ethnomedicinal knowledge, provided insights into both historical and contemporary plant uses, while local villagers offered information on daily dietary practices and experiential knowledge of therapeutic efficacy.

To ensure the reliability of data and community representation, key informants were identified in consultation with village leaders and community elders. Six focus group discussions were held in different Kazakh-populated villages, facilitated by traditional healers, plant collectors, and senior community members. These sessions focused on themes such as MFP diversity, seasonal availability, culinary integration, medicinal application, cultural symbolism, and challenges to knowledge transmission. Field observations supplemented these discussions by documenting real-time plant collection, preparation, and seasonal use. All research activities prioritized ethical engagement, cultural respect, and the protection of traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights.

Data analysis

Collected data were compiled into a comprehensive inventory listing all identified MFP species along with their botanical, ecological, and ethnomedicinal information. To quantify the significance of each species, we calculated the UV, a common ethnobotanical index reflecting the relative importance of each plant to the community. The UV was computed using the formula:

$$UV=\left(\mathrm{\Sigma }Ui\right)/N$$

where Ui is the number of citations for a particular plant by individual informants, and N is the total number of informants [29]. This approach enabled a standardized comparison of species based on both frequency of use and cultural relevance.

Results

Sociodemographic characteristics of study participants

A total of 100 individuals participated in the MFP use surveys, which included semi-structured interviews and six focus group discussions. Participants were categorized by age into the following groups: < 30 years, 31–40 years, 41–50 years, 51–60 years, and > 60 years. The majority of informants were concentrated in the 51–60 (37%), 41–50 (29%), and 31–40 (10%) age ranges. This distribution reflects the demographic most actively engaged in the use and transmission of traditional medicinal knowledge. In contrast, younger individuals (< 30 years, 9%) and the elderly (> 60 years, 15%) were less represented, indicating potential vulnerabilities in intergenerational knowledge transfer.

Traditional plant diversity and medicinal-edible plants (MFPs) Utilization by the Kazakh ethnic group

Botanical diversity survey overview

Between 2012 and 2024, a systematic survey of medicinal plant resources was conducted across the Altay region, documenting a total of 12,225 medicinal plant species. Against this broad botanical backdrop, the present study specifically focuses on 118 medicinal plants that are traditionally used by the Kazakh people for both food and medicine, with field research and data collection carried out primarily in 2012 and 2017. This narrower scope highlights the Kazakh community’s profound ethnobotanical knowledge in the domain of MFPs integrative practices.

Composition and characteristics of MFPs

From this total, 118 species were specifically identified as MFPs, distributed across 37 families and 85 genera (Table 1). The taxonomic breakdown is as follows:

(1). Dominant families included Rosaceae (15 species, 12.71%), Fabaceae (9 species, 7.62%), Asteraceae (9 species, 7.62%), Polygonaceae (9 species, 7.62%), and Umbelliferae (7 species, 5.93%).

(2). Moderately diverse families comprised Elaeagnaceae (5 species, 4.24%), Campanulaceae (4 species, 3.39%), Saxifragaceae (4 species, 3.39%), and Caprifoliaceae and Urticaceae (3 species each, 2.54%).

(3). Minor families (30 families) were represented by 1–2 species each (≤ 1.69%), including Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Brassicaceae, Linaceae, Iridaceae, and Amaranthaceae.

Plant life forms and utilization patterns

Herbaceous plants dominated the MFPs (82 species, 69.5%), followed by shrubs (24 species, 20.3%) and trees (12 species, 10.2%). Although most MFPs were historically wild-harvested, increasing demand has led to the cultivation of 30.51% of these species, highlighting a growing shift toward sustainable use.

The Kazakh community utilizes different plant parts for both medicinal and dietary purposes, with notable divergence between therapeutic and nutritional applications. Medicinal uses most frequently involved roots (25.42%), leaves (22.03%), and whole plants (18.64%), collectively comprising over 70% of medicinal usage. In contrast, fruits (33.90%) were the dominant part used in dietary applications, followed by leaves (20.34%) and roots (20.34%) (Fig. 3). This differentiation reflects both functional selection and cultural dietary preferences (Table 2).

Fig. 3.

The statistics of the used parts for MFPs of Kazakh ethnic group

Table 2.

List of ethnomedicinal plants commonly used by the Kazakh people in Altay, Xinjiang

Voucher number	Scientific name	Local name	Family	A) Medicinal Uses and B) Preparation	Food uses	Food part used	Medicinal part used	Taxonomic	Habit	UV
654324240908001LY	Pinus sibirica Du Tour	巴勒哈拉盖	Pinaceae	A) Nourish Yin and moisten lungs B) Appropriate amount of resin for external use or chewing	Eating dried seeds (pine nuts)	Seed	Seed	Tree	Wi	0.17
654323170812052LY	Betula pendula Roth	阿合海英	Betulaceae	A) Detoxifying, Heat-clearing and dampness-removing B) The bark can be used externally after being ground	Drinking as beverage	Secretion	Bark	Tree	Wi	0.03
180,812,022	Morus nigra L	哈拉图特	Moraceae	A) Dispelling wind-heat, clearing liver and improving vision B) Decocting with water	Eating dried or fresh fruits	Fruit	Fruit, leaf	Tree	Cu	0.04
190,614,004	Morus alba L	阿克图特	Moraceae	A) Dispelling wind-heat, clearing liver and improving vision B) Decocting with water	Eating dried or fresh fruits	Fruit	Fruit, leaf	Tree	Cu	0.04
654301170808030LY	Humulus lupulus L	胡勒麻柯	Cannabaceae	A) Strengthening stomach, aiding digestion B) Decocting with water	Brewing for beer-making	Fruit	Fruit	Herb	Cu	0.08
150,725,023	Urtica urens L	合什麻	Urticaceae	A) Detoxifying, dispelling wind B) External application after crushing	Vegetable salad	Leaf	Whole plant	Herb	Wi	0.07
654325170706017LY	Urtica cannabina L	夏克帕削普	Urticaceae	A) Detoxifying, dispelling wind B) Decocting with water, external use, pounding	Vegetable salad	Leaf	Whole plant	Herb	Wi	0.02
654323170804066LY	Urtica dioica L	喀拉卡伊	Urticaceae	A) Detoxifying, dispelling wind B) Decocting with water used for fumigating and washing the affected area	Vegetable salad	Leaf	Whole plant	Herb	Wi	0.04
654301170708055LY	Rheum compactum L	杰别巴斯绕哈什	Polygonaceae	A) Laxative or astringent B) Decocting with water	Vegetable	Leaf, Stem	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.14
B0188	Rheum altaicum Losinsk	阿勒泰绕哈什	Polygonaceae	A) Indigestion, chronic constipation B) Decocting with water	Making candied fruit or brewing wine	Leaf, Stem	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.06
240,629,002	Rheum wittrockii C.E. Lundstr	天山绕哈什	Polygonaceae	A) Laxative or astringent B) Decocting with water	Vegetable	Leaf, Stem	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.14
654323170710008LY(A)	Rumex acetosa L	合么孜德克	Polygonaceae	A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying B) Pounding fresh parts to extract juice for external application, or grinding dried roots with vinegar to make juice for smearing on the affected area	Vegetable	Leaf	Root, whole plant	Herb	Wi	0.04
654301170806015LY	Rumex thyrsiflorus Fingerh	提克塔米尔克米孜德克	Polygonaceae	A) Heat-clearing and dampness-removing B) Pounding fresh parts to extract juice for external application, or grinding dried roots with vinegar to make juice for smearing on the affected area	Vegetable	Leaf	Root	Herb	Wi	0.04
654301170623010LY	Rumex crispus L	阿特胡拉合合么孜德克	Polygonaceae	A) Heat-clearing and blood-cooling B) Pounding fresh parts to extract juice for external application, or grinding dried roots with vinegar to make juice for smearing on the affected area	Vegetable	Leaf	Root	Herb	Wi	0.04
B0035	Rumex confertus Willd	结伊乌萨亭克米孜德克	Polygonaceae	A) Astringent, hemostatic B) Pounding fresh parts to extract juice for external application, or grinding dried roots with vinegar to make juice for smearing on the affected area	Eating stems and seeds as food substitute	Stem, Seed	Root, Seed	Herb	Wi	0.04
654301170809007LY	Bistorta officinalis Raf	杰尔霍纳克	Polygonaceae	A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying B) Taken orally in the form of pills or powders; for external use, it is applied by pounding fresh parts into a paste, or used for gargling or fumigating and washing the affected area after Decocting with water with water	Brewing wine	Rhizome	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.29
654301170708051LY	Bistorta vivipara (L.) Gray	塔乌克伊克沃提	Polygonaceae	A) Hemostatic, promoting blood circulation B) Taken orally in the form of pills or powders; for external use, it is applied by pounding fresh parts into a paste, or used for gargling or fumigating and washing the affected area after Decocting with water with water	Using fruit as grain substitute or brewing wine	Fruit	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.05
654323170802011LY	Bassia scoparia (L.) A. J. Scott	依赞	Amaranthaceae	A) Diuretic, clearing damp-heat B) Decocting with water; external application after crushing	Vegetable	Seedling, stem, leaf	Fruit	Herb	Wi	0.01
654323170722011LY	Portulaca oleracea L	苏鲁夏细	Portulacaceae	A) Detoxifying, diuretic B) Decocting with water; pounded with table salt for external application	Vegetable	Whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.06
654301170805013LY(B)	Saponaria calabrica Guss	柯热木克	Caryophyllaceae	(A) Promoting blood circulation (B) Pounding fresh parts for external application; oral administration	Using seeds for starch, making vinegar, or brewing wine	Seed	Seed	Herb	Wi	0.02
654301170708017LY	Vaccinium vitis-idaea L	柯孜木克	Ericaceae	(A) Hypertension, diabetes (B) Decocting with water; extracting juice for oral administration	Making juice, fruit wine, jam, or fruit tea	Fruit	Fruit, leaf	Shrub	Wi	0.07
H0035	Nymphaea tetragona Georgi	同黑柯	Nymphaeaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and calming the mind (B) Decocting with water	Eating rhizomes or brewing wine	Rhizome	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.07
240,630,010	Trollius dschungaricus Regel	准噶尔困凯勒德	Ranunculaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Decocting with water	Brewing flowers as tea	Flower	Flower	Herb	Wi	0.08
J0023	Trollius altaicus C. A. Mey	阿勒泰困凯勒德	Ranunculaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Decocting with water	Brewing flowers as tea	Flower	Flower	Herb	Wi	0.08
654323170804056LY	Berberis heteropoda Schrenk	阔柯布药	Berberidaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and drying dampness B) Decocted with water for gargling; decocted with water for fumigating and washing;	Eating fresh fruits or making jam	Fruit	Root bark	Shrub	Wi	0.04
170,718,014	Raphanus sativus L	硕木尔	Brassicaceae	(A) Expelling phlegm and relieving asthma (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; Pounding fresh parts for external application	Vegetable	Root	Root, seed, leaf	Shrub	Cu	0.01
654323170722021LY	Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik	凯勒特巴斯	Brassicaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Mashing for external use to relieve mild skin discomfort	Vegetable	Whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.01
654325170728019LY	Ribes nigrum L	哈拉哈提	Grossulariaceae	(A) Tonifying and strengthening (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits or making jam	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.07
F0093	Ribes aciculare Sm	托砂拉	Grossulariaceae	(A) Cooling blood and dispelling wind (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits, making jam or juice	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.02
654301240806001LY	Crataegus chlorocarpa Lenne et C. Koch	萨尔多拉纳	Rosaceae	(A) Strengthening stomach, aiding digestion (B) Decocting with water; grind the fruit into crushed powder, mix it with honey, and take it by dissolving in boiling water for oral administration	Eating fresh fruits or dried fruits	Fruit	Fruit	Tree	Wi	0.06
190,626,008	Rubus idaeus L	糖呼热艾	Rosaceae	(A) Consolidating essence (B) Making jams; eating fruit directly	Eating fresh fruits or making jam	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.04
654325170727068LY	Argentina anserina (L.) Rydb	麻末克 卡孜塔帕尼	Rosaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Decocting with water	Using roots for starch or brewing wine	Root	Whole plant	Herb	Wi	0.03
654324230918001LY	Rosa platyacantha Schrenk	特坎德伊特木仁	Rosaceae	(A) Tonifying and strengthening (B) Decocting with water; pound the root bark into a paste for external application	Eating fresh fruits or making jam	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.02
190,609,008	Rosa × damascena Herrm	绕山古勒	Rosaceae	(A) Detoxifying, astringent (B) Decocting with water; pound the root bark into a paste for external application	Making flower jam or brewing tea	Flower	Flower	Shrub	Cu	0.02
654301170708034LY	Rosa albertii Regel	阿勒布尔特绕山	Rosaceae	(A) Detoxifying, astringent (B) Decocting with water; pound the root bark into a paste for external application	Eating fresh fruits or making jam	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.02
190,712,001	Rosa rugosa Thunb	若扎古勒	Rosaceae	(A) Activating blood, astringent (B) Grinding petals into powder and brewing as tea; pounding petals and applying externally	Making wine or sugar with flowers and fruits	Flower, fruit	Bud	Shrub	Cu	0.03
654325170822023LY	Sanguisorba officinalis L	杰尔布药	Rosaceae	(A) Hemostatic, treating burns (B) Decocting with water	Brewing young leaves as tea	Leaf	Root	Herb	Wi	0.24
120,720,403	Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	夏普托勒	Rosaceae	(A) Activating blood, promoting fluid production (B) Boiling peach kernels with water for decoction; mashing fresh peach pulp for external application	Eating fresh fruits or processing into products	Fruit	Nut	Tree	Cu	0.03
190,629,011	Prunus armeniaca L	吾尔柯	Rosaceae	(A) Activating blood, regulating menstruation (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits	Nut	Nut	Tree	Wi or Cu	0.11
120,611,002	Prunus dasycarpa Ehrh	阔乐克特沃日克	Rosaceae	(A) Activating blood, regulating menstruation (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits	Fruit	Nut	Tree	Cu	0.11
BEJ20230920025Y	Medicago sativa L	中西哈	Fabaceae	(A) Clearing stomach heat (B) Decocting with water; extracting juice for oral administration	Vegetable	Stem, leaf	Stem, leaf	Herb	Wi or Cu	0.02
654323170802007LY	Trifolium pratense L	克孜勒巴斯别带	Fabaceae	(A) Relieving cough and asthma (B) Grinding into powder; decocting with water	Vegetable	Stem, leaf	inflorescence	Herb	Wi	0.03
654325170703007LY	Caragana leucophloea Pojark	喀拉干	Fabaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Decocting with water	Vegetable	Flower	Root, flower	Herb	Wi	0.01
150,828,002	Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bunge	萨尔米亚	Fabaceae	(A) Diuretic and hypotensive (B) Decocting with water; grinding processed astragalus into fine powder for blending into porridge	Using roots in soup or tea	Root	Root	Herb	Wi	0.24
654323170830007LY	Astragalus membranaceus var. mongholicus (Bunge) P. K. Hsiao	蒙古勒萨尔米亚	Fabaceae	(A) Diuretic and hypotensive (B) Decocting with water; grinding processed astragalus into fine powder for blending into porridge	Using roots in soup or tea	Root	Root	Herb	Cu	0.24
654323170702002LY	Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch	柯孜勒米亚	Fabaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Grinding into powder; decocting with water	Brewing as tea or using as food additive	Root	Root	Herb	Wi	0.56
170,715,004	Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin	柯孜勒米亚	Fabaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Grinding into powder; decocting with water	Brewing as tea or using as food additive	Root	Root	Herb	Wi	0.56
150,908,001	Glycyrrhiza glabra L	柯孜勒米亚	Fabaceae	(A) Heat-clearing and detoxifying (B) Grinding into powder; decocting with water	Brewing as tea or using as food additive	Root	Root	Herb	Wi	0.56
654323170906007LY	Cicer arietinum L	霍依布尔莎克	Fabaceae	(A) Strengthening and anti-diarrheal (B) Decocting with water	Vegetable	Seed	Seed	Herb	Cu	0.02
J0087	Linum usitatissimum L	布依达坎德尔图胡么	Linaceae	(A) Nourishing liver and kidney (B) Pounding and applying externally on the affected area; decocting for fumigating and washing the affected area	Extracting oil from seeds for cooking	Seed	Seed	Herb	Cu	0.04
654325170824024LY	Nitraria sibirica Pall	阿克特坎	Nitrariaceae	(A) Treating stomachache, tuberculosis (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.04
170,717,037	Ziziphus jujuba Mill	其兰	Rhamnaceae	(A) Calming and sedative (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits	Fruit, root	Fruit	Tree	Cu	0.10
190,811,030	Vitis vinifera L	居孜木	Vitaceae	(A) Diuretic and aiding digestion (B) Decocting with water; mashing fresh leaves for external application	Eating fresh fruits, drying into raisins, or brewing wine	Fruit	Fruit	Herb	Cu	0.03
654323170722026LY	Elaeagnus angustifolia L	级代	Elaeagnaceae	(A) Stomachache, chronic nephritis (B) Decocting with water; grinding the bark into powder and apply it on the affected area	Eating fresh fruits or brewing wine	Fruit, flower	Fruit	Tree	Wi	0.03
F0029	Elaeagnus oxycarpa Schltdl	喀热吉野带	Elaeagnaceae	(A) Chronic bronchitis, enteritis (B) Decocting with water; grinding the bark into powder and apply it on the affected area	Eating fresh fruits or brewing wine	Fruit, flower	Fruit	Tree	Wi	0.03
654325240808014LY	Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. turkestanica Rousi	希尔哈纳柯	Elaeagnaceae	(A) Cough and asthma (B) Decocting with water; grinding the fresh fruit into powder and apply it on the affected area	Eating fresh fruits or making beverages	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.17
654325170730008LY	Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. mongolica Rousi	蒙古了希尔哈纳柯	Elaeagnaceae	(A) Cough and asthma (B) Decocting with water; grinding the fresh fruit into powder and apply it on the affected area	Eating fresh fruits or making beverages	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.17
170,716,027	Punica granatum L	阿纳尔	Punicaceae	(A) Astringing intestines, stopping diarrhea (B) Decocting with water or extracting juice for oral administration; grinding into powder for external application	Eating fresh fruits or making beverages	Fruit	Fruit	Tree	Cu	0.01
200,606,002	Cuminum cyminum L	孜然	Umbelliferae	(A) Activating blood, dispersing stasis (B) Grinding into powder for external compress	Using fruits as seasoning	Fruit	Fruit	Herb	Cu	0.01
654323170830003LY	Foeniculum vulgare Mill	别迪安	Umbelliferae	(A) Heat-clearing, detoxifying (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; applying essential oil externally	Vegetable	Stem, leaf, fruit	Fruit	Herb	Cu	0.05
654301170805011LY	Levisticum officinale W. D. J. Koch	阿尤巴勒德尔干	Umbelliferae	(A) Activating blood, regulating menstruation (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; soaking in alcohol for topical application	Vegetable	Stem, leaf	Root, rhizome	Herb	Cu	0.29
180,629,007	Ferula lehmannii Boiss	萨斯尔	Umbelliferae	(A ) Digesting accumulation, vermifuge (B) Proper amount of asafoetida gum, grind it and add to plaster for external application on the affected area; boiling asafoetida gum together with mutton, and drink the soup	Vegetable	Stem, leaf	Root, resin	Herb	Wi	0.07
170,529,006	Ferula feruloides (Steud.) Korovin	萨斯柯胡来	Umbelliferae	(A) Digesting accumulation, vermifuge (B) Proper amount of asafoetida gum, grind it and add to plaster for external application on the affected area; boiling asafoetida gum together with mutton, and drink the soup	Using for starch	Stem, leaf	Root, resin	Herb	Wi	0.10
654301170624003LY	Ferula dubjanskyi Korovin	胡木德克萨斯尔	Umbelliferae	(A) Digesting accumulation, vermifuge (B) Proper amount of asafoetida gum, grind it and add to plaster for external application on the affected area; boiling asafoetida gum together with mutton, and drink the soup	Using for starch	Stem, leaf	Root, resin	Herb	Wi	0.07
190,809,044	Daucus carota L	萨布孜	Umbelliferae	(A) Expelling phlegm, vermifuge (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; mashing fresh roots for external compress	Eating roots fresh	Root	Root	Herb	Cu	0.01
120,905,015	Agastache rugosa (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Kuntze	平纳	Labiatae	(A) Summer-damp type cold, fever (B) Decocting with water	Vegetable	Stem, leaf	Whole plant	Herb	Cu	0.02
200,811,015	Schizonepeta multifida (L.) Briq	提力克加披热克提 喀拉沃朗	Labiatae	(A) Headache, Nephritis (B) Decocting with water; ground into powder for external application	Using whole plant as food seasoning t	Whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.07
654301170708090LY	Nepeta cataria L	阔柯加勒布孜	Labiatae	(A) Headache, Nephritis (B) Decocting with water; ground into powder for external application	Using young leaves as tea substitute or seasoning	Leaf	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.07
654323170810048LY	Dracocephalum moldavica L	阔什杰斯提吉拉尼巴斯	Labiatae	(A) Spleen and stomach: damp-heat (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; making medicinal paste for external application	Brewing young leaves as tea	Leaf	Whole grass	Herb	Cu	0.01
B0161	Prunella vulgaris L	卡拉巴斯血布	Labiatae	(A) Swelling and pain of mastitis (B) Decocting with water	Brewing inflorescence and fruit spikes as tea	Inflorescence, fruit ear	Inflorescence, fruit ear	Herb	Wi	0.11
654323170804025LY	Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam	淘扎勒布孜/苦柯麻拉勒	Labiatae	(A) Fever, sore throat, swollen throat (B) Decocting with water; boil together with medical gauze, then soak the gauze in the medicinal juice and apply it externally on the affected area	Brewing whole plant as tea substitute	Whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.19
654323170804051LY	Origanum vulgare L	麻托来细柯	Labiatae	(A) Damp-heat invasion causing urinary retention (B) Decocting with water	Brewing flowers or whole plant as tea	Flower, whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.19
654325170824013LY	Mentha canadensis L	加勒布孜	Labiatae	(A) Indigestion, Stomach heat (B) Decocting with water; fumigate and wash eyes with Decocting with water for red eyes	Brewing whole plant as tea, or using in candy and beverages	Whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.12
654301170805001LY	Lycium ruthenicum Murray	喀拉阿拉哈提	Solanaceae	(A) Myopia in youth, presbyopia (B) Decocting with water; take the aqueous Decocting with water, then take it with camel milk for oral administration	Brewing dried fruits as tea or eating dried fruits	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.12
654323170902005LY	Lycium barbarum L	阿拉哈提	Solanaceae	(A) Myopia in youth, presbyopia (B) Decocting with water; take the aqueous Decocting with water, then take it with camel milk for oral administration	Brewing dried fruits as tea, eating dried fruits, or consuming young leaves as vegetable	Fruit, leaf	Fruit, root bark	Shrub	Cu	0.08
654325170821001LY	Lycium chinense Mill	阿拉哈提	Solanaceae	(A) Myopia in youth, presbyopia (B) Decocting with water; take the aqueous Decocting with water, then take it with camel milk for oral administration	Eating young leaves as vegetable, brewing as tea, or eating dried fruits	Fruit, leaf	Fruit, root bark	Shrub	Cu	0.08
654323170722018LY	Solanum nigrum L	依特朱孜木	Solanaceae	(A) Chronic bronchitis, enteritis (B) Decocting with water; pound and apply externally on the affected area; decoct for fumigating and washing the affected area	Eating fruits fresh	Fruit	Whole plant	Herb	Wi	0.05
180,907,052	Solanum melongena L	巴克拉间	Solanaceae	(A) Poliomyelitis in children (B) Extracting juice for oral administration; Roasting and applying externally	Vegetable	Fruit	Root, stem, leaf, seed	Herb	Cu	0.01
J0006	Cistanche deserticola Y.C.Ma	叶特松古拉	Orobanchaceae	(A) Kidney deficiency, nocturnal emission (B) Decocting with water; grind into fine powder and take with boiling water for oral administration	Brewing stems as tea or steeping in wine	Stem	Stem	Herb	Wi	0.15
240,513,001	Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight	孜木孜亚	Orobanchaceae	(A) Kidney deficiency, nocturnal emission (B) Decocting with water; grind into fine powder and take with boiling water for oral administration	Brewing stems as tea or steeping in wine	Stem	Stem	Herb	Wi	0.15
120,730,009	Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn	库克阿斯哈巴克	Cucurbitaceae	(A) Excessive lung heat (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; mashing fresh pulp for external application	Vegetable	Fruit	Fruit bark, root	Herb	Cu	0.02
180,814,016	Cucurbita moschata Duchesne	阿斯哈巴克	Cucurbitaceae	(A) Prostate hyperplasia, enterobiasis (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; Grinding into powder for external compress	Vegetable	Fruit	Root, stem, leaf, seed	Herb	Cu	0.04
654301170717002LY	Plantago asiatica L	阿孜亚卓勒杰勒坎	Plantaginaceae	(A) Liver and gallbladder heat causing red eyes (B) Decocting with water	Vegetable, tea	Whole grass, seed	Whole grass, seed	Herb	Wi	0.26
654,301,170,626,011(A)LY	Plantago depressa Willd	扎依卓勒杰勒坎	Plantaginaceae	(A) Liver and gallbladder heat causing red eyes (B) Decocting with water	Vegetable, tea	Whole grass, seed	Whole grass, seed	Herb	Wi	0.26
654301170913003LY	Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC	霍恩绕古勒	Campanulaceae	(A) Lung abscess with cough (B) Decocting with water	Vegetable	Stem, leaf	Root	Herb	Cu	0.10
150,711,012	Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf	照朱木尔	Campanulaceae	(A) Impotence, premature ejaculation (B) Decocting with water	Using roots in soup	Root	Root	Herb	Cu	0.34
654301170708063LY	Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) C. B. Clarke	新疆照朱木尔	Campanulaceae	(A) Impotence, premature ejaculation (B) Decocting with water	Using roots in soup	Root	Root	Herb	Wi	0.34
654323170802009LY	Helianthus annuus L	昆巴哈尔	Asteraceae	(A) Dizziness, vertigo (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; Applying fresh flower paste externally	Eating dried fruits (seeds)	Fruit, seed	Stem, inflorescence	Herb	Cu	0.06
654323170811044LY	Arctium lappa L	沃砂干	Asteraceae	(A) Cancer, skin itching (B) Decocting with water; pounded for external application	Using roots for starch	Root	Seed	Herb	Wi	0.25
654323170804058LY	Arctium tomentosum Mill	柯依克孜冲艾纳	Asteraceae	(A) Cancer, skin itching (B) Decocting with water; pounded for external application	Using roots for starch	Root	Seed	Herb	Wi	0.25
654301170805007LY	Carthamus tinctorius L	麻合萨热	Asteraceae	(A) Amenorrhea, abdominal bloating (B) Decocting with water	Extracting oil from seeds for cooking	Seed	Flower	Herb	Cu	0.16
654301170626032LY	Cichorium intybus L	夏西来特克	Asteraceae	(A) Poor appetite, stabbing pain (B) Decocting with water	Using roots as coffee additive	Root	Root, stem, fruit	Herb	Wi	0.09
150,614,005	Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg	巴赫巴克	Asteraceae	(A) Heat-clearing, detoxifying (B) Decocting with water; pounded for external application	Eating whole plant as wild vegetable or brewing as tea substitute	Whole grass	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.41
654301170715053LY	Sagittaria trifolia L	吾什胡拉克别代加普拉克	Alismataceae	(A) Cooling blood, stopping bleeding (B) Decocting with water; pounded for external application	Vegetable	Corm	Corm	Herb	Cu	0.04
654321180728033LY	Sagittaria sagittifolia L	昂如帕杰呗加披热格	Alismataceae	(A) Cooling blood, stopping bleeding (B) Decocting with water; pounded for external application	Vegetable	Corm	Corm, flower, leaf	Herb	Wi	0.04
120,815,021	Imperata cylindrica var. major (Nees) C. E. Hubb	阿克巴斯别台格	Poaceae	(A) Acute urethritis, hematuria (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; Crushing fresh roots for external application	Vegetable	Rhizome	Rhizome	Herb	Cu	0.02
H0018	Erythronium sibiricum (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Krylov	别克	Liliaceae	(A) Immune system impairment (B) Stew together with mutton; boil together with milk for 20 min	Vegetable	Underground stem	Underground stem	Herb	Wi	0.31
190,807,016	Allium fistulosum L	萨尔木撒柯	Amaryllidaceae	(A) Headache and fever (B) Decocting with water; Stew into mutton soup for oral administration	Vegetable	Whole grass	Seed	Herb	Cu	0.04
654301170708075LY	Lilium martagon var. pilosiusculum Freyn	萨尔安那	Liliaceae	(A) Hemoptysis, tuberculosis cough (B) Decocting with water for oral administration; Grinding bulbs into powder for external application	Vegetable	Bulb	Bulb	Herb	Wi	0.32
191,002,001	Crocus sativus L	杂合普然	Iridaceae	(A) Premature ejaculation, impotence (B) Steeping its stigmas in warm water for drinking; grinding it into powder and mixing it into porridge	Brewing stigmas in warm water for drinking or mixing powder into porridge	Flower	Flower	Herb	Cu	0.16
170,809,024	Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng	阿斯朱阿	Amaryllidaceae	(A) Hematemesis, hemoptysis (B) Decocting with water or extracting juice for oral administration; Pounding fresh leaves for external application	Vegetable	Whole grass	Seed	Herb	Wi or Cu	0.01
654301170817014LY	Allium altaicum Pall	阿勒泰淘萨尔木撒柯	Amaryllidaceae	(A) External wind-cold (B) Decocting with water; Stew into mutton soup for oral administration	Vegetable	Whole grass	Seed	Herb	Wi	0.03
654324230923001LY	Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud	哈姆斯	Poaceae	(A) Various fire toxins, carbuncles (B) Decocting with water	Brewing rhizomes as tea	Rhizome	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.06
654325170702012LY	Phlomoides molucelloides (Bunge) Salmaki	梳勒马萨克	Lamiaceae	(A) Chronic cough and asthma (B) Decoct together with milk for drinking; roast for consumption	Stewing with meat in soup or roasting for consumption	Root	Rhizome	Herb	Wi	0.03
654301170716043LY	Cirsium esculentum (Siev.) C. A. Mey	土野塔板	Asteraceae	(A) Lung abscess with cough (B) Decoct with milk for oral administration; mash the root and apply it on the affected area	Eating aerial parts fresh	Aboveground	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.06
654325170729008LY	Geranium pratense L	夏勒根德巴老萨	Geraniaceae	(A) Dispelling wind, activating blood (B) Decocting with water	Brewing aerial parts in milk tea	Aboveground	Whole grass	Herb	Wi	0.09
170,816,019	Ribes saxatile Pall	塔斯扎尔干	Grossulariaceae	(A) Tonifying and strengthening (B) Decocting with water	Brewing aerial parts as tea	Aboveground	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.03
B0082	Ribes altissimum Turcz. ex Pojark	柯孜勒哈提	Grossulariaceae	(A) Tonifying and strengthening (B) Decocting with water	Brewing aerial parts as tea	Aboveground	Fruit	Tree	Wi	0.08
654326240715048LY	Adenophora lamarckii Fisch	什柯勒达克	Campanulaceae	(A) Cough due to lung heat or yin deficiency (B) Decocting with water	Using rhizomes in soup or cold dishes	Rhizome	Root	Herb	Wi	0.13
654325170706012LY	Spiraea hypericifolia L	托布勒各	Rosaceae	(A) Promoting fluid production, diuretic (B) Mix the dry distillation oil and extract oil of the branches, then apply and rub on the affected area, after decocting with water, add milk to the decocting with water and drink it	Brewing flowers as tea	Flower	Flower	Shrub	Wi	0.04
654323170804026LY	Sambucus sibirica Nakai	尔该	Viburnaceae	(A) Fractures, contusions, trauma bleeding (B) Decocting with water; grinding into powder for application on traumatic areas	Eating fresh fruits, making jam or juice	Fruit	Fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.19
654324240907004LY	Viburnum opulus L	商柯西	Viburnaceae	(A) Injuries from falls and contusions (B) Mashing for juice, for oral administration	Eating fresh fruits, making jam or juice	Fruit	Root, leaf	Shrub	Wi	0.05
654323170810043LY	Lonicera altaica Pall	阿勒泰乌什哈提	Caprifoliaceae	(A) Fever, difficulty swallowing (B) Decocting with water	Eating fresh fruits, making jam or juice	Fruit	Flower, leaf, stem	Shrub	Wi	0.01
654323170804036LY	Prunus padus L	莫依勒	Rosaceae	(A) Bronchitis, cerebral abscess (B) Decocting with water and concentrating into a paste for taking	Eating fresh fruits, making jam or juice	Fruit	Flower, fruit, leaf	Tree	Wi	0.03
F0123	Rubus saxatilis L	斯依尔布勒德尔干	Rosaceae	(A) Consolidating essence, tonifying kidney (B) Grinding with vinegar for application on the affected area	Eating fresh fruits, making jam or juice	Fruit	Whole plant	Shrub	Wi	0.11
654301170814004LY	Dasiphora fruticosa (L.) Rydb	苦热勒柴	Rosaceae	(A) Astringent, anti-diarrheal (B) Decocting with water	Brewing leaves and flowers as tea	Leaf, flower	Leaf, flower, fruit	Shrub	Wi	0.03
150,726,053	Rhaponticum carthamoides (Willd.) Iljin	布格血布	Asteraceae	(A) General weakness, neurasthenia (B) Decocting with water, grinding into powder for oral administration	Steeping fibrous roots in wine	Root	Rhizome, root	Herb	Wi	0.24
170,705,049	Saussurea involucrata (Kar. & Kir.) Sch.Bip	霍家血布/哈尔哈勒达克	Asteraceae	(A) Cold evil invading, Wind-cold evil stagnating (B) Decocting with water; grind into powder	Steeping whole plant in wine	Whole grass	Aboveground	Herb	Wi	0.10

UV analysis

Quantitative analysis of UV indices revealed that the most frequently cited MFPs for medicinal use were Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Glycyrrhiza inflata (both UV = 0.56), followed by Taraxacum officinale (UV = 0.41), and Codonopsis pilosula and Codonopsis clematidea (both UV = 0.34).

The high UV values of Glycyrrhiza species align with their widespread use in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), where they are reputed to appear in “nine out of ten prescriptions” due to their harmonizing role in herbal formulations. This resonance with Kazakh practice underscores significant overlap in regional ethnomedical systems.

The prominence of Taraxacum and Codonopsis species may reflect not only their abundance and accessibility in Altay’s environment but also their relevance to common health conditions in the Kazakh population. These species, typically well-known and readily collected, are frequently employed in both food and medicinal contexts, further reinforcing their cultural and therapeutic significance. Comparative ethnobotanical studies in other regions, such as Turkey and Ethiopia, have similarly highlighted the prominence of locally abundant species in traditional diets and medicine [30–34]. Future studies could explore the reasons behind lower UV scores in less commonly used species to better understand patterns of knowledge erosion or selective use.

Therapeutic applications of MFPs in Kazakh traditional medicine

The therapeutic spectrum of MFPs in Kazakh traditional medicine spans a wide array of health concerns, organized both by traditional medical theory and modern system classifications (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Diseases treated with medicinal plants

Digestive and Respiratory Health were the most frequently treated domains, with 26.05% of species targeting digestive ailments and 17.65% used for respiratory conditions. This includes traditional treatment strategies such as “Clearing Heat and Detoxifying” (used for furuncles, dysentery, and sore throat) and “Relieving Cough and Asthma” (applied in bronchitis and chronic cough), which employ plants with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and expectorant properties.

Urinary, nervous, and trauma-related treatments formed additional key application areas. Plants used for the urinary system (8.40%) were often associated with diuretic and anti-edema effects, aligned with the traditional category of “Promoting Diuresis and Removing Dampness.” Nervous system applications (11.86%) included therapies for stress-related ailments and insomnia. Treatments addressing musculoskeletal (4.20%) and circulatory disorders, often linked to trauma or menstruation, fell under the concept of “Activating Blood Circulation.”

Reproductive and metabolic health were addressed through applications targeting the reproductive system (6.78%) and tonification of liver and kidney functions, utilizing adaptogenic herbs for conditions such as impotence and renal fatigue.

Other applications included seasonal and symptomatic relief, such as “Relieving Exterior Syndrome” for colds and fever, “Stopping Bleeding” for hemorrhagic conditions, and “Calming Liver Wind” for neurological or cardiovascular symptoms, such as hypertension-induced headaches. Although less represented individually, these categories reflect a nuanced understanding of health within Kazakh ethnomedicine.

Together, these findings highlight the sophistication and contextual adaptation of Kazakh MFP-based therapies, demonstrating their alignment with both ecological realities and the specific health needs of pastoral-nomadic life.

Kazakh knowledge and dietary use of MFPs

The Kazakh population of the Altay region maintains a predominantly nomadic lifestyle, grazing livestock year-round on natural grasslands. Their traditional diet is centered around meat and dairy products, supplemented by wild plants collected during seasonal migrations to enhance vitamin intake and diversify nutritional sources. Based on ethnobotanical research and compilation, Kazakh wild edible plants can be broadly categorized into fruits, vegetables, beverages, and dietary therapies (Fig. 5). Edible parts commonly include fruits, flowers, leaves, and seeds.

Fig. 5.

Edible category of MFPs

Field investigations revealed that fruit consumption is especially prevalent. Wild fruits such as black tea thistle, alpine tea thistle, and Altai blackcurrant are often eaten fresh or processed into jams for preservation. Taraxacum mongolicum (pig-tooth flower), a traditional food plant, has starch-rich flowers and roots that can be eaten raw or used in preparations such as milk boiling and pan-frying [35]. Wild onions are consumed raw or used as condiments in meals.

Additionally, wild plants play a significant role in traditional beverages. For instance, Niuzhi was historically a luxury tea reserved for Kazakh nobility but has since become a widespread and culturally significant herbal drink. Some plants also serve functional roles in food preparation, such as using horsehair to ferment camel milk and other dairy products [36].

These diverse uses highlight the centrality of plants in Kazakh food culture, not only as ingredients but as regulators of dietary systems. The accumulation of practical knowledge over generations has produced a sophisticated understanding of edible plants that merits protection and documentation. During fieldwork, herders frequently emphasized the importance of phenological cues, such as flowering and fruiting periods, in harvesting practices. This reflects a strong ecological awareness and deep respect for nature’s rhythms, underscoring the Kazakh people’s integration of traditional ecological knowledge into everyday subsistence.

Cultural significance of MFPs in Kazakh ethnobotany

Over centuries of coexistence with their environment, the Kazakh people have integrated the use of MFPs into their cultural, spiritual, and ecological traditions, forming a unique body of ethnobotanical knowledge (Table 3). For example, Hippophae rhamnoides (sea buckthorn) is widely used for its fruits and seed oil to treat coughs and skin inflammation. Similarly, plants such as Rosa multiflora and Urtica fissa serve both practical and symbolic functions, with rose petal preserves consumed in winter as a nourishing tonic.

Table 3.

Five traditional Kazakh MFPs: Culinary, therapeutic, and cultural practices

Plant Name	Medicinal and Culinary Uses	Cultural/Symbolic Practices
Peganum Harmala L	Seeds (controlled dosage) for pain relief; boiled leaves for skin infections	Spring migration: spraying livestock with Peganum water for hygiene purposes
Ferula assa-foetida L	Resin for wound; mixed with sheep fat (diluted) to promote lactation	Used in postpartum care and emergency wound treatment
Allium chrysanthum Regel	Juice for ear infections; raw consumption for digestion	Dietary use in bread-making to balance nutrition
Cistanche deserticola Ma	Stewed with mutton for kidney health; medicinal wine for stamina	Traditional tonic for physical strength
Erythronium sibiricum (Fisch. & C. A. Mey.) Krylov	Boiled with milk for convalescents; stir-fried with fat for children’s growth	Dietary supplement for immunity and recovery

Kazakh plant use is guided by ecological ethics and traditional taboos rooted in environmental observation. For instance, Allium ramosum and Allium chrysanthum are not harvested until the first spring thunder, an indicator used to mark the appropriate harvesting window. Likewise, berries like Rosa multiflora are collected only at full ripeness, ensuring optimal quality and minimizing ecological disruption. Cultural rules also govern compatibility: For example, Peganum harmala is traditionally avoided in combination with dairy products. Such ecological taboos and harvesting norms are also documented in other traditional societies, such as in Ethiopia and Turkey, where seasonal and phenological cues guide sustainable gathering practices [30, 32, 33].

Remarkably, these cultural practices align with modern pharmacological findings. Scientific studies have confirmed the antioxidant properties of Hippophae rhamnoides and the antiviral effects of Glycyrrhiza uralensis, validating ancestral knowledge through contemporary research. This intersection of empirical science and traditional experience illustrates the enduring relevance of Kazakh ethnobotany.

MFPs in Kazakh culture serve not only as food and medicine but as conduits of identity, memory, and environmental ethics. Their use reflects the Kazakh worldview of harmony between humans and nature. While some traditional practices—such as the commercialization of sea buckthorn oil—have entered modern markets through cultural tourism, core knowledge continues to be transmitted orally by elders. This living heritage requires both scientific engagement and cultural sensitivity to safeguard its continuity, ensuring that the ecological wisdom and cultural integrity of Kazakh MFP use are preserved for future generations.

Discussion

Regional variations in traditional knowledge of MFPs

This study systematically documents the Kazakh ethnic group’s use of 118 MFPs in Altay, Xinjiang, illustrating the deeply rooted concept of “medicine and food from the same source” in their traditional healthcare system. Compared to other Chinese ethnic minorities, such as the Daur [19], the Kazakhs exhibit a high degree of adaptation to nomadic pastoralism. Species like Hippophae rhamnoides (sea buckthorn) and Glycyrrhiza uralensis (licorice), valued for both their immune-supporting and nutritional benefits, exhibit high use values (UV = 0.56), underscoring their importance in coping with the harsh high-altitude environment. Unlike the Daur, who rely heavily on herbaceous plants (75%) [25], the Kazakh dependence on woody species (32.2%), including those from Pinaceae and Rosaceae, reflects the ecological specificity of their mountain habitats and seasonal mobility. These regional differences highlight how traditional knowledge systems are finely tuned to microhabitat variation. Furthermore, the variation in plant part utilization (e.g., predominant use of fruits for food and roots for medicine) reflects a selective adaptation to resource availability and functional properties, a pattern also documented in other ethnobotanical studies [30, 31].

Integration of medicinal and dietary functions

Kazakh MFP practices embody a traditional ecological medical worldview that emphasizes the unity of food and medicine. The study found that 68.2% of recorded species serve dual roles in diet and therapy. For example, Ziziphora clinopodioides is used both as an anti-inflammatory herbal tea and a meat preservative. The frequent use of digestive remedies (26.05%) and detoxifying herbs like Taraxacum officinale aligns with common health issues in nomadic communities, including trauma and gastrointestinal infections. Compared to synthetic drugs, these plants contain complex bioactive compounds—such as flavonoids and polysaccharides—released slowly over time, making them more suitable for long-term, preventive health care. This aligns closely with the Kazakh medical philosophy of “prevention first” [37]. The multifunctional use of plants, serving as both food and medicine, underscores their significant role in supporting food security and primary healthcare in rural communities, a finding consistently reported in global ethnobotanical research [32, 38].

The Kazakh MFPs in a cross-cultural perspective

Our study documents a rich and diverse biocultural heritage of medicinal food plants (MFPs) among the Kazakh people in Altay. When viewed in a cross-cultural lens, the Kazakh MFP system reveals both significant commonalities with other global pastoral traditions and distinctive features shaped by its unique ecological and cultural context.

A key commonality lies in the adaptive selection of plant families and parts. The predominance of Rosaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae species and the preference for nutrient-dense fruits and roots are convergent strategies also observed among the Daur people of Inner Mongolia and Mongolian herders [19, 39]. This reflects a shared response to the health challenges of nomadic life, particularly digestive and respiratory ailments, necessitating a focus on plants with bioactive compounds for prevention and treatment.

However, the Kazakh system is distinguished by its remarkable sophistication and specificity. The precise dosage control of Peganum harmala seeds, grounded in an empirical understanding of its alkaloid content, represents a pharmacological refinement rarely documented with such detail in other nomadic societies [23]. Similarly, the age-specific culinary processing of Erythronium sibiricum—boiled with milk for convalescents versus stir-fried with fat for growing children—showcases a nuanced dietary therapy system that optimizes bioavailability and nutritional uptake for different physiological needs. These practices are not merely subsistence strategies but are embedded in a holistic worldview that seamlessly integrates food and medicine, a concept less pronounced in the more medically oriented traditions of the Afar pastoralists or the Daur [18, 19].

The sheer diversity of MFPs documented (118 species) exceeds that of many comparable studies (e.g., 52 species in the Daur, 106 in the Afar [18, 19]), underscoring the exceptional biodiversity of the Altay Mountains and the depth of Kazakh ethnobotanical knowledge. This knowledge is sustained by a community-based transmission system that, while threatened, currently appears more resilient and gender-balanced than the male-dominated, vertically transmitted knowledge systems reported in Ethiopia [18] or the severely eroded knowledge among the younger generation in Nepal [21].

Sustainable use and emerging challenges

Kazakh MFPs hold significant promise for nutraceutical development. Plants like Hippophae rhamnoides, rich in antioxidants [40], and Codonopsis pilosula, with immune-modulating properties [41], align well with global trends in plant-based health products. However, commercialization must ensure fair benefit-sharing with local communities to prevent cultural exploitation. Integrating traditional practices into biodiversity management plans, especially within Altay’s protected areas, could promote ecological resilience while safeguarding cultural heritage. Traditional harvesting practices reflect a sophisticated ecological consciousness. Techniques such as collecting only ripe fruits (e.g., Ribes nigrum) or preserving plant roots (e.g., Glycyrrhiza uralensis) demonstrate sustainable use thresholds that maintain natural regeneration. Nevertheless, the shift toward artificial cultivation—now accounting for 30.51% of MFPs—raises concerns over reduced genetic diversity. Monocultures of Hippophae rhamnoides, for instance, may compromise adaptive traits. Concurrently, climate-induced changes in precipitation are driving altitude shifts in alpine endemics, such as Rhodiola rosea [42]. The sustainability of these valuable resources is under severe threat, a challenge mirrored in pastoral communities worldwide from the drylands of Ethiopia to the Himalayas of Nepal [18, 21]. This situates the Kazakh experience within a global context of biocultural knowledge erosion, where market demands and environmental change are destabilizing ancient ecological balances [18, 21]. Critically, the erosion of MFP knowledge directly jeopardizes future ecological resilience and community health. The Kazakh MFP system is a vital, culturally-acceptable resource for preventive healthcare and nutritional security, particularly for managing widespread issues like digestive disorders and hypertension. Its degradation could exacerbate health burdens in a region with limited access to diverse foods and modern healthcare. Therefore, integrating traditional knowledge into conservation is not merely cultural preservation but a critical public health and ecological imperative. The ecological taboos and phenological knowledge of the Kazakh people—such as the prohibition against harvesting Allium species before the first spring thunder—must be incorporated into the core of protected area management and climate adaptation plans [20, 23]. Such environmental pressures necessitate the development of robust conservation strategies that integrate in situ and ex situ approaches, supported by community participation and policy intervention [33]. These challenges call for the integration of traditional phenological knowledge, such as the taboo against harvesting Allium species before the first spring thunder [43], into protected area management and conservation planning. Strategies should include combining gene bank development with community-based management to establish a dual framework of cultural and ecological conservation. Safeguarding this knowledge is essential for ensuring both the environmental sustainability of Altay and the future well-being of its people.

Limitations and future directions

While this study offers a comprehensive ethnobotanical inventory of Kazakh MFPs in Altay, several limitations should be acknowledged to guide future research. Our study primarily focused on the Kazakh ethnic group. Although some cross-cultural comparisons with other nomadic groups were initiated, they were not extensive enough to include a broader range of co-resident ethnicities within the prefecture (e.g., Mongolians, Han Chinese) or Kazakh communities in other major pastoral regions like Ili. Second, our investigation was conducted in key Kazakh-inhabited villages across all seven counties of Altay Prefecture to ensure a representative overview. However, this approach did not achieve a full-coverage survey of every Kazakh community. Future studies should prioritize the phytochemical and pharmacological validation of the most cited MFPs to substantiate their efficacy and safety. Furthermore, longitudinal studies are critical to quantitatively evaluate the rate of traditional knowledge erosion and the impacts of climate change on key species, like Ferula assa-foetida, known for its resin used in wound healing [44]. To ensure intergenerational knowledge transmission, efforts should engage Kazakh youth through participatory ethnobotany, biocultural education, and ecotourism. Documenting this knowledge is urgent, as it is susceptible to distortion and loss with declining intergenerational transfer and reliance on oral traditions [45].

The Kazakh people of Altay exemplify a deeply rooted model of human-nature coexistence, in which plants function simultaneously as sources of nutrition, medicine, and cultural identity [46]. Their practices present a valuable model for reconciling biodiversity conservation with community well-being. Protecting this biocultural heritage requires collaborative approaches that respect indigenous knowledge while integrating modern scientific tools and methods. By bridging ancestral wisdom and contemporary sustainability science, the Kazakh MFP tradition offers meaningful contributions to global environmental and public health challenges.

Conclusions

This ethnobotanical study documents the Kazakh people’s use of 118 MFPs in Altay, Xinjiang, illustrating a deep integration of ecological knowledge and traditional health practices. The predominance of digestive and respiratory applications, along with the preference for multifunctional species like Glycyrrhiza (UV = 0.56), reflects a holistic, preventive approach to health. Sustainable harvesting methods and the use of locally abundant plant parts highlight a sophisticated understanding of biodiversity conservation. The findings align with global patterns where wild plants play a crucial role in nutrition, food security, and cultural identity, especially among indigenous and rural communities. Preserving this biocultural heritage through community engagement and scientific integration is essential for promoting ecological resilience and cultural continuity in the region.

Abbreviations

MFP

Medicinal food plant

UV

Use value

Wi

Wild

Cu

Cultivate

TCM

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Author contributions

The fieldwork for data collection was conducted by JZ and BL and YQ and YL. The voucher specimens were identified by CZ and GP. the study was conceived of and designed by GP. Data analysis and manuscript preparation were performed by WD and YJ. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Tianshan Talent Training Program of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2023TSYCCX0023), the Tianchi Talent Program of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (YHBH01240658), the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Nature Fund (2022D01B190, 2022D01A305), and Major Science and Technology Projects of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2023A03005-1).

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The authors asked for permission from the local authorities and the people interviewed to carry out the study.

Consent for publication

The people interviewed were informed about the study’s objectives and the eventual publication of the information gathered, and they were assured that the informants’ identities would remain undisclosed.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.