Table 4.

Physical training with cognitive training

Study(Year and location)	Study Design	Population Diagnosis	Intervention Group (IG)	Duration of intervention	Ouctomes	Effect of intervention
LawLLF, 2022, China [20]	RCT	MCI	FTE group: received FTE training for 8 weeks, facilitated by a trained occupational therapist (12 sessions,60-min/session, 4–6/group)	8 weeks	Balance Outcome: CST, BBS	Functional task exercise group improved balance (Berg Balance Scale) at Post intervention 5-month follow-up (Mean = 53.5 (3.67) 95% CI (− 1.60 to − 0.43)) (p-value = 0.039), and Chair Stand Test Mean 14.56 (5.59) 95% CI (− 4.21 to − 1.84) (p-value 0.000).
Fogarty, 2016, UK, Canda [25]	RCT	MCI	Memory Intervention Program (MIP) and Taoist Tai Chi (TTC) training twice weekly for 90 min at a time for 10 weeks. (90 min/session, 2 sessions/week)	10 weeks	Cognitive Outcome: HVLT, Digit Span and Digit Symbol from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–III, TMT-A, TMT-B, RBMT–II, TEA, MAC-SR, Balance Outcome: RAPA, Gait velocity, stride time, and stride time variability, CTSIB “	TTC exercise did not specifically improve cognition or physical mobility. There was no significant change over time for the MIP + TTC group compared with the MIP-alone group on any of the gait variables, on any of the dual-task cost variables, or in the amount of sway on any of the balance measures.
Callisaya, 2021 Australia [27]	RCT	MCI	Participants received an iPad with the StandingTall program. The program built to a total of 2 h of balance exercises per week, with cognitive dual-tasking exercises added in week 8. [40–2 h/week (from 40 min in weeks 1 and 2, to 120 min from week 9 onwards)]	6 months	Cognitive Outcome: TMT-A, TMT-B, Victoria Stroop task, COWAT, Digital Symbol Coding tests and the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, Balance Outcome: Gait speed, Dual-task gait, FICSIT-4, ABC, Falls.	No significant differences between the methods on balance and cognition.
Uysalİ, 2023, Turkey [28]	RCT	MCI	Group 1: Aerobic exercise training combined with lower limb strengthening group (AG), (3 sessions/week) Group 2: Dual-task training combined with lower limb strengthening group (DG), (3 sessions/week) Group 3: Aerobic exercise training combined with dual-task training and lower limb strengthening group (ADG) (3 sessions/week)	12 weeks	Cognitive Outcome: MMSE Balance Outcome: TUG, ABC, SLST”	The most remarkable change was observed in the ADG on cognitive status, mobility and physical performance parameters (p < 0.05). In addition, the most signifcant improvement in balance parameters was recorded both in the DG and ADG (p < 0.05). Besides, the highest increase in functional exercise capacity was detected both in the AG and ADG (p < 0.05)
Li, 2021, USA [29]	RCT	MCI	Dual-task Tai Ji Quan training program based on Tai Ji Quan: Moving for Better Balance (60 min/session, 2 sessions/week)	24 weeks	Balance Outcome: Falls, 4-Stage Balance Test, 30-second chair stands, TUG,	The Tai Ji Quan program improved balance compared to the Stretching Group.
Makizako, 2012, Japan [30]	RCT	aMCI	The six-month-long, multicomponent exercise program, with combinations of aerobic exercise, muscle strength training and postural balance retraining. (90 min/session, 2 sessions/week)	24 weeks	Balance Outcome: WS, OLS, RT, Dual-task costs (DTC balance and cognitive demand)	The improvement effects on dual-task performances with both balance and cognitive demands were not statistically significant: reaction time with balance demand (P = 0.07), and cognitive demand (P = 0.12).
Hagovská, 2016, Slovak Republic [33]	RCT	MCI	Cogni-Plus, from SCHUHFRIED GmbH, Austria, 10 weeks (30 min/session, 7 sessions/week)	10 weeks	Cognitive Outcome: MMSE, Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination, Balance Outcome: BESTest, TUG, POMA test, Falls”	“There were significant differences between these two groups recorded in the assessment of several cognitive functions by Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination (p < 0.05–0.0001) in favor of the experimental group. The assessment of postural reactions and the total score of the BESTest were in favor of the experimental group (p < 0.05–0.0001)”
Lipardo, 2020, China [36]	RCT	MCI	Group 1: (PACT) physical and cognitive training. (60–90 min/session, 1–3 sessions/week) Group 2: (PT) physical training. (60–90 min/session, 1–3 sessions/week) Group 3: (CT) cognitive training. (60–90 min/session, 1–3 sessions/week)	12 weeks	Balance Outcome: TUG, The 10-Meter Walk Test, The 10-Meter Walk Test, Physiological Profile Assessment–Short Form, Falls rate	No significant difference was observed across time and groups on fall incidence rate at 12 weeks (P = 0.152) and at 36 weeks (P = 0.954). The groups did not statistically differ in other measures except for a significant improvement in dynamic balance based on Timed Up and Go Test in the combined physical and cognitive training group (9.0 s with P = 0.001) and in the cognitive training alone group (8.6 s with P = 0.012) compared to waitlist group (11.1 s) at 36 weeks.
Gregory, 2016, Canada [37]	RCT	MCI	(EDT) Group-based exercise + Dual Task training. (60–75 min/session, 2–3 sessions/week)	26 weeks	Balance Outcome: Gait	At 26 weeks, the EDT group demonstrated increased dual-task (DT) gait velocity [difference between groups in mean change from baseline (95% CI): 0.29 m/s (0.16–0.43), p < 0.001], DT step length [5.72 cm (2.19–9.24), p = 0.002], when compared to the EO group.
Hagovská, 2016, Slovak Republic [39]	RCT	MCI	CogniPlus training program from SHUFRIED GmbH Company in Austria: CogniPlus 20 training sessions, 2 sessions/week), physical training (30 min/session, 7 sessions/week)	10 weeks	Cognitive Outcome: MMSE, TMT-A, The Nine Hole Peg Test. Balance Outcome: BESTest, TUG, TUG DT with dual tasking. “	The cognitive-motor training performed for 10 weeks confirmed more significant relationships between balance control, cognitive functions, gait speed, and activities of daily living, when compared with motor intervention alone.
Suzuki, 2012, Japan, [43]	RCT	aMCI	Multicomponent exercise under the supervision of physiotherapists (90 min/session, 2 sessions/week)	12 months	Cognitive Outcome: MMSE, WMSLM I and II, WMS-LM, letter verbal fluency test (LVFT), category verbal fluency test: (CVFT), SCWT-I, SCWT-III	Improvements of cognitive function following multicomponent exercise were superior at treatment end (group × time interactions for the mini-mental state examination (P = 0.04), logical memory of immediate recall (P = 0.03), and letter verbal fluency test (P = 0.02)). The logical memory of delayed recall, digit symbol coding, and Stroop color word test showed main effects of time, although there were no group × time interactions.

AD Alzheimer Disease,ADG Aerobic Exercise Training Combined with Dual-Task Training, AG Aerobic Exercise Group, aMCI Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment, CG Control Group, CI Cognitive Impairment, CON Control Group, CT Cognitive Training, DG Dual-Task Training Group, DTG Dumbbell Training Group,ET Exercise Training, FTE Functional Task Exercise, HSPT High-Speed Power Training, IG Intervention Group, LSST Low-Speed Strength Training, MCI Mild Cognitive Impairment, PACT Physical and Cognitive Training, PT Physical Training, RCT Randomized Controlled Trial, WC Wait-List Control