Abstract
Sports education is an important factor of psychological well-being, cognitive focus and social development but this aspect is very little discussed in the literature, especially in case of China. This study aims to find the relationship among sports education, psychological well-being, social development, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness in China. Moreover, the mediating role of psychological well-being and strategic capacity is also explored. Data were collected from 869 Chinese individuals using a structured questionnaire based on previously validated Likert-scale instruments measuring six constructs: sports education, psychological well-being, social development, cognitive focus, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied for empirical analysis. The results reveal that sports education has a significant positive effect on social development (β = 0.431, p < 0.01), psychological well-being (β = 0.401, p < 0.01), environmental awareness (β = 0.485, p < 0.01), cognitive focus (β = 0.452, p < 0.01), strategic capacity (β = 0.447, p < 0.01). Moreover, psychological well-being significantly mediates the relationship between sports education and cognitive focus (indirect effect β = 0.475, p < 0.01), suggesting that improved emotional stability and mental resilience foster enhanced cognitive functioning among individuals engaged in sports. Additionally, strategic capacity significantly mediates the relationship between sports education and social development (indirect effect β = 0.415, p < 0.01), indicating that individuals with higher strategic thinking skills derive greater social benefits from sports participation. The study provides valuable insights for policymakers and sports organizations seeking to maximize the benefits of sports education in promoting psychological well-being, social development, and strategic capacity in China.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13102-025-01290-4.
Keywords: Sports education, Psychological well-being, Social development, Strategic capacity, Environmental awareness, Cognitive focus
Introduction
Sports education refers to the learning and teaching process of physical education, sports, and physical activity in a school or academic context. It is not only the learning but development of cognitive, emotional, and social skills through sports activities [1]. It contributes to the economy by developing human capital, fostering innovation, promoting sustainable development and enhancing community engagement [2]. Sports education offers numerous benefits for individuals, communities, and society as a whole. Its importance can be understood from various perspectives as it promotes physical activities and reduce the health issues. It teaches essential life skills like teamwork, communication, discipline, and time management, preparing individuals for success beyond academics [3]. It also enhances cognitive functions like concentration, problem-solving, and strategic thinking, complementing academic learning. In-depth, sports education is important because it fosters a culture of physical activity, reducing sedentary lifestyles, provides a platform for socialization, building relationships, enhances cognitive functions, and character development [4, 5]. The term “sports education” is used to refer to the broader educational process that encompasses physical education (PE), school-based sports, and structured physical activity programs. While “Physical Education (PE)” is the formal term commonly used in the Chinese educational context to describe the academic subject, the use of “sports education” in this research aligns with earlier literature (e.g., Siedentop, 1994) to reflect a more holistic interpretation that includes instructional quality, participation, skill development, and the educational value of sports beyond the classroom.
Sports education has long been recognized as a crucial element of personal and societal development, contributing to physical, psychological, cognitive, and social well-being [6]. Beyond the evident benefits for physical health, participation in sports education programs fosters mental resilience, teamwork, leadership skills, and environmental awareness. As nations strive to develop well-rounded citizens who contribute positively to society, sports education is increasingly integrated into academic curricula and community programs worldwide [7]. This trend is particularly significant in China, where the government has made considerable efforts to enhance sports education as a means of fostering psychological well-being, social cohesion, strategic competence, and environmental responsibility [1].
Psychological well-being encompasses emotional stability, self-esteem, stress resilience, and overall mental health. Research suggests that sports participation is positively associated with reduced anxiety, lower stress levels, and improved emotional regulation [8]. Engaging in sports enhances self-confidence and emotional resilience, fostering a sense of achievement and fulfillment. Sports education provides a structured and effective means of enhancing mental well-being by boosting self-confidence, and fostering emotional resilience. The psychological benefits of sports participation are particularly relevant in China, where students face high academic pressures and societal expectations [9]. By integrating sports education into academic and community programs, policymakers, educators, and mental health professionals can leverage physical activity as a powerful tool for promoting mental health and improving quality of life. Addressing the barriers to sports participation in China, such as academic constraints and infrastructural limitations, will be essential in maximizing the mental health benefits of sports education for future generations.
Social development is individuals’ abilities to engage, collaborate, and function effectively within society. Sports education fosters teamwork, leadership, communication skills, and cultural integration, playing a crucial role in building social capital [10]. Sports education serves as a powerful mechanism for fostering social development by providing structured opportunities for teamwork, leadership, communication, and cultural integration. Participation in sports encourages individuals to work together toward common goals, communicate effectively, and develop a sense of collective responsibility [11]. Through team-based activities, individuals learn how to navigate group dynamics, resolve conflicts, and support teammates, thereby enhancing their interpersonal and emotional intelligence. Research indicates that sports participation promotes pro-social behaviors, cooperation, and mutual respect, leading to greater social cohesion and stronger community bonds [7].
Cognitive focus is the ability to direct and sustain attention on a specific task while filtering out distractions. It is helpful for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. Participation in sports is associated with increased working memory, attentional control, and speed of processing information [12]. Sports education is widely linked with increased cognitive function, specifically in areas relating to working memory, attentional control, and information processing speed. Participation in sports demands to make quick judgments, predict the opponent’s actions, and adapt the changing strategies in real time. All these factors strengthen the cognitive processing capabilities [13]. Neurocognitive research has shown that physical activities increase blood flow to the brain and enhance synaptic plasticity, leading to improvements in mental clarity and overall cognitive agility [14]. Moreover, organized sports activities train the brain to focus under pressure, enhancing the ability of an individual to self-regulate and put up with cognitive challenges.
Environmental awareness refers to individuals’ cognitive and affective understanding of environmental issues, including sensitivity to pollution, appreciation for clean and green spaces, and recognition of sustainability as a societal goal. The psychology and sustainability studies have recognized the importance of environmental awareness in shaping behaviors. Sports education often involves taking outdoor activities in the open area, physical interactions with nature, and exposure to environmental concepts for a heightened consciousness and responsibility concerning the environment [15]. Theories from environmental psychology and sustainability education suggest that individuals exposed to natural environments through structured physical activity develop stronger environmental ethics and consciousness [16]. Sport education also incorporate ecological concepts directly through environmental education programs [17]. When sports curricula incorporate climate change, pollution control, and resource use lessons, participants tend to be more conscious of environmental stewardship. Scientific studies show that individuals participating in sports education programs focused on environmental issues tend to become supportive for environmental actions, sustain environmentally friendly behaviors, and make pro-environmental choices in daily life [18].
Strategic capacity pertains to the capability of planning, formulating, and implementing effective strategies to attain specified goals and objectives. It is frequently viewed as a crucial element in moving society towards sustainable development, a goal that the Bruntland Commission prominently emphasized in the policy agenda in 1987. Sports education significantly contributes to the strategic capacity in various ways. Investing in sports education cultivates a healthier and more skilled workforce [19, 20]. “Participation in sports teaches essential soft skills and these skills are transferable to the workplace, enhancing the strategic capacity of businesses by fostering effective teamwork, adaptive leadership, and a resilient workforce [21]. When a country excels in sports, it fosters national pride and unity. This sense of identity and unity can translate into greater social cohesion, political stability, and a collective drive towards common goals, strengthening the strategic capacity of the economy [22].
While the impact of sports education on physical health is well-documented, its broader implications for psychological well-being, social development, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness remain underexplored. This study seeks to bridge this gap by examining the interconnections between sports education and these key developmental domains, with a particular focus on the mediating role of psychological well-being and strategic capacity.
Based on the identified gaps and theoretical perspectives, this study aims to:
Examine the impact of sports education on psychological well-being, social development, cognitive focus, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness.
Investigate the mediating role of psychological well-being in the relation between sports education and cognitive focus.
Analyze the mediating role of strategic capacity in the relation between sports education and social development.
Provide empirical evidence on how sports education contributes to environmental and sustainability awareness.
The study contributes in several ways. It develops a comprehensive framework integrating sports education, psychological well-being, cognitive focus, social development, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness, enriching our understanding of their complex relationships. It provides novel insights into the mediating effects of psychological well-being and strategic capacity in the relationship between sports education, social development, and cognitive focus. Moreover, this study merged the perspectives from economics, sociology, education, and environmental science, highlighting the value of interdisciplinary research and providing a rich understanding of the complex relation among these aspects.
After introduction, second section elaborated the conceptual framework and hypothesis of the study. Third section is about the methodology while section IV reported the estimated results. The section V discusses the results while section VI concludes the study.
Conceptual framework and hypotheses
Sports education is essential in shaping social development, because it improves the ability of team work, effective communication, and adaptation of different social settings. The Social Learning Theory [23] offers a robust theoretical framework for this relationship. It postulates that people learn social behaviors through observation, imitation, and participation in structured activities. While sports education provides an interactive environment where individuals engage in team-based activities, fostering cooperation, and mutual understanding. Similarly, social capital theory [24] highlighted the role of social networks, trust, and shared values in promoting collective well-being. Sports education build social capital by developing relationships that enhance the ability to function effectively within a group or community.
Empirical studies support the view that sports education fosters teamwork since it encourages people to plan, share the burden, and work towards the same objectives. Bailey [6] reported that students who participate in sports have better teamwork skills than non-athletes because they learn to work with groups. Holt et al. [25] also pointed out that participation in organized sports enhances the ability of young athletes to work together and lead others. In addition to teamwork, sports education enhances effective communication skills, both verbal and non-verbal. The research found that athletes perform appropriate communication at real time to express emotional activities [26]. Moreover, sport raise interpersonal activities involving conflict solving competencies to tackle difficulties in interpersonal processes [7]. Coalter [10] argued that sport provide an area where different categories of people relate with each other, reducing socio-cultural barriers thus promoting social homogeneity. According to Spaaij [27], sports education improves intercultural understanding and reduces prejudice among the individuals. This underlines the greater impacts of sports education on social development by compelling people to share experiences collectively, build friendships, and even feel a shared identity. Therefore, the integration of sports education into academic curricula and community programs can be an essential strategy for fostering social development and enhancing societal well-being.
H1: Sports education has a positive impact on social development by fostering teamwork,communication, and social integration
Sports education plays an essential role in creating psychological well-being through its contribution to structured physical activities, helping in reducing the tension level, developing a good feeling of self-worth, and establishing emotional resilience. This relationship is supported by various psychological theories, such as the idea that participation in sports education satisfies the fundamental psychological needs, enhances positive emotions, and acts as a buffer against psychological distress. Therefore, self-determination theory [28, 29] support the positive effect of sports education on psychological well-being. According to this theory, people have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Sports education satisfies these needs because it allows people to develop their skills (competence), interact and form social bonds with teammates (relatedness), and engage in physical activities of their choice (autonomy). Research has demonstrated that satisfaction of these psychological needs enhances intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and overall emotional well-being [30].
The empirical evidences depict that sports education boosts psychological well-being. Reducing stress and anxiety levels has been one of the most commonly documented benefits of sports education. López-Valenciano et al. [31] demonstrated that engagement in sports resulted in a reduction in psychological distress and an improvement in emotional well-being, and, therefore, reinforcing the relevance of structured sports education in terms of mental health promotion. According to Fox & Wilson [32], persons who engage in structured sports programs report higher levels of self-esteem and confidence as sports help the individuals to develop a positive self-image through goal-setting and achievement. Hagger et al. [33] argued that performing exercise within an academic context, develops self-concept and body image, both are crucial factors for psychological well-being. The findings show that sports education enhance the possibility for achievement of self-esteem and increased emotional resilience. According to Lubans et al. [8], sports help the individuals to develop emotional stability and stress management skills that strengthen their mental resilience. These studies show that sports education equips the individuals with necessary psychologically tools to navigate challenges of life more effectively.
H2: sports education enhances psychological well-being by reducing stress, improving self-esteem, and promoting emotional resilience
Rooted in experiential learning theory, participation in nature-based sports fosters direct interaction with the environment, promoting ecological sensitivity and awareness. Sports education that includes sustainability themes can enhance pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors through learned experience. It is unclear how sports education actually affected the environmental awareness of the nation [34]. Sports education can serve as a platform for environmental education. By incorporating lessons on sustainability, conservation, and ecological responsibility into sports programs, individuals—especially the youth—can develop a greater awareness and understanding of environmental issues [35]. It is well known fact that sports education often encourages outdoor activities. This engagement with nature, whether through hiking, cycling, or other outdoor sports, fosters a deeper connection with the environmental awareness. It can lead to a heightened appreciation for natural spaces and a desire to protect them. Conversely, sports events and facilities can have environmental impacts [31]. The construction and maintenance of sports venues, transportation to and from events, and waste generated during competitions can contribute to environmental degradation. Sports, due to their visibility and influence, offer a platform for environmental advocacy. Athletes, teams, and sporting organizations often have considerable social influence [36]. The relation between sports education and environmental awareness also encompasses health benefits of outdoor activities. A healthier population resulting from sports education might be more inclined to protect the environment, recognizing the correlation between personal well-being and a clean, sustainable environment [37]. Theoretical models within sports education can also emphasize the responsible use of resources. Teaching athletes and participants about efficient resource utilization, reducing waste, and adopting eco-friendly equipment can contribute to a more sustainable approach within the sports industry. So sports education can both benefit from and contribute to environmental conservation efforts, leveraging the influence of sports to raise awareness, educate individuals, and promote sustainable practices that protect the environment [38].
H3: sports education has positive relation with environmental awareness of a country by promoting sustainable practices, fostering social cohesion, and encouraging the development of eco-friendly infrastructure and policies
The Embodied Cognition Theory suggests that physical movement and cognitive function are deeply interconnected, meaning that bodily experiences influence mental processes [22, 39]. Sports education, which requires complex motor skills, strategic decision-making, and spatial awareness, enhances cognitive focus by strengthening neural connections between movement and thought processes. Studies in cognitive science indicate that engaging in physical activities enhances cognitive flexibility, problem-solving abilities, and mental clarity. The Cognitive Load Theory [40] posits that individuals have a limited cognitive capacity, and engaging in complex tasks like sports can train the brain to manage and process information more efficiently. In a sporting environment, athletes must analyze dynamic situations, make split-second decisions, and adapt to changing conditions, which helps improve working memory, concentration, and focus [26]. Over time, these cognitive skills translate into better focus and efficiency in academic and real-world tasks.
The studies found that sports education improves attention control and concentration significantly. Hillman et al. [12] found that students who belonged to sports programs showed higher attentional control and information processing speed than the non-athletes. Pesce et al. [41] found that physical activity participation led to better sustained attention, along with a decrease in cognitive lapses, which strengthens the view of sports engagement in cognition. Participation in sports greatly develops executive function, which is characterized by flexibility in cognition, control of inhibition, and working memory. According to Voss et al. [42], sports education helps the athletes to improve executive functioning, including rapid decision-making, and prediction of opponents’ movements. According to Ludyga et al. [43], sports education develops the cognitive flexibility and enhances the ability to learn more adaptively in a given learning environment. Donnelly et al. [44] reported that students who participate in regular physical education programs, show greater attention ability. Tomporowski et al. [14] demonstrated that sports boost the endurance of cognition, where students can concentrate on academic work for longer durations.
H4: sports education positively influences cognitive focus by enhancing attentional control, information processing, and mental clarity
Sports education has been acknowledged as an important instrument of acquiring strategic capacity. This strategic capacity encompasses decision-making, planning, and adaptability to adaptive and realistic game conditions. Strategic capacity is the ability to analyze complex situations and make logical decisions in difficult situations [31]. Such cognitive and behavioral attributes are developed through sports when participants are forced to think critically, predict the outcome, and dynamically adjust strategies. A number of psychological and behavioral theories justify this proposed relationship between sports education and strategic capacity. Cognitive load theory explains how people process and manage their cognitive resources when solving problems or making decisions [35]. Sports require athletes to process several pieces of information at once, including assessing the movement of opponents, predicting the outcome of the game, and adjusting strategies in real-time. Such high cognitive load helps in developing the ability to think critically under pressure, which translates into improved decision-making and adaptability in everyday life. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) explains how individuals’ intentions, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control influence their decision-making [16, 18, 23]. Sports education enhances an individual’s self-efficacy and confidence in making strategic choices, which translates into better real-life decision-making.
Recent empirical research supports the argument that sports education enhances decision-making abilities. Yukhymenko-Lescroart et al. [45] pointed out that strategic sports, such as chess, basketball, and soccer, improve executive functioning, including problem-solving, attention control, and adaptive reasoning. These results show that the educational setting provided by sports helps the people to process information faster and make the right decisions in stressful situations. According to MacIntyre et al. [46], continuous engagement in sports helps the students to develop long-term strategic thinking as they have to analyze the behavior of opponents, predict future scenarios, and make changes accordingly. Similar findings were found by Cumming et al. [47], who discovered that people participating in team-based sports develop their planning and organizational skills, which can positively affect their academic and professional performance. Adaptability is also an important feature of strategic capacity, as individuals learn to adapt to new challenges to recover from setbacks, as well as modify their approaches within changing circumstances. The findings [48, 49] indicate that unpredictable sports environments, athletes learn to develop a higher level of resilience and adaptability, through which they could navigate uncertainty.
H5: sports education enhances strategic capacity, leading to improved decision-making, planning, and adaptability in competitive and real-life situations
Psychological well-being plays a critical role in shaping cognitive processes, particularly cognitive focus. Theoretically, the Broaden-and-Build Theory [50] suggests that positive emotional states—central to psychological well-being—expand individuals’ thought–action repertoires, promoting mental flexibility, attention, and problem-solving abilities. In contrast, negative emotional states associated with poor mental health tend to narrow cognitive scope and reduce attentional capacity. This is supported by Cognitive Load Theory [41], which posits that psychological distress increases extraneous cognitive load, thereby limiting the mental resources available for focused attention and effective information processing.
Empirical research also supports the link between psychological well-being and enhanced cognitive functioning. For instance, Sandi [37] highlighted how psychological stress negatively affects memory and attention, whereas psychological stability enhances these functions. Diener et al. [13] found that individuals with high levels of well-being demonstrated superior executive control and attentional regulation. Additionally, Ryan et al. [30] observed a significant positive association between psychological well-being and academic focus among students, suggesting that well-being enhances task engagement and sustained mental effort.
H6: psychological well-being has positive impact on cognitive focus, as emotional stability and mental clarity contribute positively to sustained attention and mental engagement
Strategic capacity—the ability to set goals, make informed decisions, and effectively allocate resources—is widely recognized as a foundational driver of individual and collective progress. From a theoretical standpoint, Human Capital Theory and Capability Approach suggest that individuals or institutions equipped with stronger strategic competencies are better positioned to foster sustainable social development. This is because strategic capacity enables communities to identify priorities, mobilize assets, and adapt to socio-economic challenges in ways that support inclusive growth and social cohesion.
Empirical evidence further supports this link. Studies [3, 9, 46] indicate that the ability to organize, collaborate, and plan strategically enhances social capital and civic engagement, both of which are critical to social development. The study [15] also found that countries and organizations with higher strategic capacity demonstrated more resilient institutions and improved service delivery, contributing to broader societal well-being. Similarly, building strategic capacity in public institutions leads to better governance, reduced inequality, and long-term developmental outcomes [33]. In light of these theoretical insights and empirical findings, it is posited that strategic capacity serves as a catalyst for advancing social development by empowering individuals and institutions to act purposefully, inclusively, and efficiently.
H7: strategic capacity has positive impact on social development
Sports education is known for its role in improving cognitive ability, such as better attention, memory, solving problems, and making decisions. Physical activity directly affects brain function, but psychological well-being is a more important mediator. Psychological well-being refers to emotional stability, resilience to stress, self-esteem, and general mental health, which are essential factors in influencing cognitive focus [31]. Sports participation would be hypothesized to contribute to psychological well-being by reducing stress, boosting mood, and fostering emotional resilience that, in turn, enhances cognitive processing, attentional control, and executive functioning. According to the self-determination theory, it is supposed that a better life will be achieved if fundamental psychological needs related to autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. Broaden-and-Build Theory [49] argued that positive emotions broaden an individual’s cognitive and behavioral repertoire that leads to mental flexibility, enhanced problem-solving capabilities, and greater attention control. Sports participation stimulates positive emotions, which promote emotional resilience and reduce cognitive load, thereby improving cognitive performance. Chronic stress, anxiety, and emotional distress deplete cognitive resources, leading to poor concentration, mental fatigue, and impaired executive functioning [22]. Sports participation reduces stress, enhances mood, and restores mental energy, which helps individuals allocate cognitive resources efficiently, thereby improving focus and mental clarity.
Numerous studies confirm that sports education enhances psychological well-being, reducing stress and improving emotional resilience. Lubans et al. [8] found that regular participation in sports significantly reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescents, leading to improved mental health outcomes. Rebar et al. [50] conducted a meta-analysis demonstrating that physical activity is one of the most effective non-pharmacological interventions for reducing stress and improving emotional well-being. López-Valenciano et al. [31] found that post-pandemic sports participation helped restore psychological well-being by reducing feelings of isolation, stress, and anxiety. Biddle et al. [51] reported that students with better psychological well-being exhibited improved academic performance, suggesting a strong link between emotional health and cognitive abilities. The study [52] found that psychological well-being significantly mediated the impact of sports education on executive functioning, confirming that reductions in stress and improvements in mood contribute to better cognitive performance. The study [53] demonstrated that students who engaged in sports education programs showed increased cognitive flexibility and focus, but these benefits were largely explained by improvements in psychological well-being. Mandolesi et al. [35] highlighted that individuals with higher sports engagement exhibited superior cognitive performance, with emotional regulation and stress reduction acting as key mediators in this relationship.
H8: psychological well-being mediates the relationship between sports education and cognitive focus meaning that improved well-being from sports participation leads to better cognitive functioning
Strategic capacity plays an important role in optimizing the impacts of sports education on social development. This is a relationship, which can be explained by a variety of different theoretical perspectives explaining the mediating role of strategic capacity. Social capital theory provides insights about networks, trust, and collective engagement in enhancing social cohesion [31]. The strategic capacity determines how policies regarding sports education are drafted and implemented for social capital maximization to build greater inclusiveness, teamwork, and community engagement. Strong strategic capacity has an enormous investment in the sports programs engaging in cross-cultural interactions and social integration that maximize social development [44]. Moreover, institutional structure and policy framework have a great influence on sports education. This way, the governments can institutionalize the sports program by advancing long-term social benefits like a reduction in crime, especially civic engagement and social inclusion. Countries with strong strategic capability integrate sport education with broader social policies, ensuring sustainable social development.
Empirical studies support the mediating role of strategic capacity in linking sports education and social development. Sports education with strong strategic planning capabilities has good resource allocation, which implies equal distribution across various social groups. Empirical evidence also suggests that well-planned sports programs enhance community cohesion and social inclusion, particularly in multicultural societies [10]. Effective policy implementation fosters an inclusive sports culture, which promotes teamwork, social interaction, and leadership skills. Spaaij [27] found that structured sports education programs contribute to intercultural understanding and reduce social barriers, leading to improved social cohesion. Countries that integrate sports education into their social development agenda have long-term benefits, such as crime reduction and youth empowerment. It proved that strategic sports education provides mental well-being and social resilience, which become essential for effective social development [31].
H9: strategic capacity mediates the relation between sports education and social development
The proposed conceptual framework illustrating the hypothesized relationships among the study variables is presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework in the figure illustrates the relationships among sports education and its impact on various key variables, including psychological well-being, cognitive focus, social development, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness. It demonstrates how sports education serves as a central element driving multiple outcomes through direct and indirect pathways. The solid lines represent direct effects, showing how sports education directly enhances psychological well-being, and cultivates environmental awareness and responsibility.
Methodology
Measures
The questionnaire used in this study was developed by adapting established measurement items from previously validated instruments published in peer-reviewed literature and provided as a supplementary information with the study. Constructs such as sports education, psychological well-being, social development, cognitive focus, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness were operationalized using Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). A five-point scale is preferable to one with seven or nine points [54, 55]. In addition, this study uses a cross-sectional methodology and a quantitative research design to look at the links among variables. To ensure content validity and cultural appropriateness, the adapted items were reviewed by three academic experts. Following this expert review, a pilot test was conducted with 30 university students to assess the clarity, wording, and contextual relevance of the items. Minor adjustments were made based on participant feedback to enhance readability and eliminate ambiguity. The final instrument demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency and was deemed suitable for full-scale data collection. The questionnaire was designed in Chinese language and then translated into English. This research constructed the variables adapted from earlier studies [3, 4, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, 32, 56, 57].
Sport education is operationalized as a multidimensional construct and measured with the help of five indicators adapted from the study [54, 56]. It can be defined as a process to learn and teach the students, incorporating the learning process of physical education, sports, and play in the acquisition of cognitive, affective, and social skills [47]. It is helpful to enhances the sense of physical literacy, health, and well-being along with promoting personal growth, teamwork, and social responsibility. It includes policies and initiatives that promote formal and informal educational programs that relate to sports participation, physical activity, and sports development [57].
The studies [7, 25]– [26] are adapted to develop the questions regarding social development. Social development is the ability of an individual to effectively engage within a community, including skills such as teamwork, leadership, communication, and collaboration [33]. In order to operationalize this variable, the concept is broken down into measurable dimensions. These dimensions include active participation in sport settings, participation frequency, participation intensity, diversity of participation in sports, subjective perceptions of increased social skills as a result of participation in sports, and how sports have strengthened interpersonal relationships. Each dimension was translated into corresponding survey items or statements that reflect the relevant information.
To design the variable of psychological well-being variable, the constructs were designed by using items of prior studies [58, 59]. There are five items used to measure psychological well-being, including emotional stability and self-esteem in addition to overall mental health. A sample question is, “Participating in sports activities benefits one’s holistic mental well-being.” These items are designed to ensure alignment with the theoretical underpinnings of psychological well-being while allowing respondents to self-assess their experiences.
Environmental awareness was measured using five items adapted from the studies [12, 16, 22] and other environmental awareness scales [50]. Items capture respondents’ recognition of clean, pollution-free, and green spaces as valuable outcomes influenced by sports engagement [39, 54]. It encompasses the physical and natural aspects of the environment, including air, water, noise, green spaces, and waste management.
The variable of cognitive focus is fundamentally rooted in the ability to concentrate and maintain awareness during activities. Adapting questions from the studies [60, 61], it is emphasized the positive influence that sports education can have on an individual’s mental clarity and mindfulness. The practice of focusing on physical movements, coupled with the mental discipline required during sports, allows individuals to sharpen their ability to remain mentally present and in control of their cognitive processes. To measure cognitive focus, questions explore how often individuals experience being fully immersed in their activity, or how well they can block out distractions and sustain attention during intense physical efforts. Questions also address the individual’s awareness of their body’s movements and sensations, such as breathing, heart rate, or muscle engagement, as well as their overall mental alertness and presence in the moment during sports.
The variable of strategic capacity is measured through five key indicators adapted from the studies [23, 41, 46]. Strategic capacity refers to ability of a person to develop, implement, and sustain strategies that foster innovation, growth, and overall effectiveness in various contexts, including sports. It encompasses cognitive, behavioral, and organizational aspects of strategy development and execution, such as vision, planning, leadership, innovation, and resource management [38]. In the context of sports education, these indicators are used to assess how participation in sports enhances individuals’ ability to think strategically, make decisions under pressure, and apply learned strategies in dynamic environments. By examining these factors, the study aims to understand how sports education influences an individual’s strategic thinking capacity, particularly in terms of planning, problem-solving, and adapting to challenges.
Respondents
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The “Ethics Committee” of the University of Education, Lahore approved this study prior to collect the data from respondents vide approval no. UE/S&T/2023/45. A written consent is gained from participants of the survey and questionnaire was sent via email and social media. Data was collected in China during July 1, 2023 to October 30, 2023. The population of interest was Chinese citizens aged more than 18 years and participated in sports education programs or have an interest in sports. A convenient and stratified random sampling used to select respondents from different regions in China, ensuring representation from urban and rural areas, as well as diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. In total, 1100 questionnaires were sent and 869 of them were suitable. Incomplete responses, inconsistent answers, or failure to meet screening criteria (e.g., not belonging to the target demographic or providing invalid data) were excluded from further analysis. To ensure data integrity, several quality control steps were undertaken. First, duplicate responses were identified and removed based on identical IP addresses, timestamps, and email identifiers. Second, responses with large sections left blank, identical Likert scale patterns (e.g., straight-lining), or completion times below 60 s were flagged as invalid and excluded from analysis. Third, eligibility criteria required participants to be (1) residents of China, (2) aged 18 or older, and (3) having either participated in a formal sports education program or reported active involvement in sports-related activities. Responses that did not meet these criteria were screened out during the initial filtering stage. To reduce self-selection and non-response bias, the survey link was distributed through a stratified social media and email outreach plan that targeted diverse demographics, including urban and rural populations, different education levels, and various age groups. Additionally, anonymity and confidentiality were emphasized to encourage honest and complete participation. These steps helped ensure that the final dataset (N = 869) was both valid and representative of the target population.
As 869 responses satisfied Nunnally’s criteria—which state that the sample size for a study should be determined by the number of items to be examined—it deemed an adequate sample size. A 10:1 case-to-item ratio is appropriate. The sample is representative of the population because the sample has 52% male, 48% female, 68% undergraduate, 32% postgraduate, 56% urban, and 44% rural people. It demonstrates that the selected sample is representative of the population of interest, increasing the validity and generalizability of the study’s findings. Results could be skewed by common method bias (CMB) because it has been demonstrated to arise frequently in previous research. Survey-related CMB problems are known to researchers [55, 62] because they have the potential to strengthen the relationships between variables being measured. The study [55] showed this problem by doing a meta-analysis of 55 studies and showed that CMB leads to bias and misleadingly high correlations. Consequently, the current study has employed specific systematic techniques that have been demonstrated to decrease the influence of CMB. First, we made sure that the questionnaire used for this study was completely objective, devoid of contradictions, and that every question was written in an understandable manner. Secondly, in an effort to boost survey response rates, people were reassured that the information they submitted would be kept private. Furthermore, the Harman’s test was carried out to guarantee that CMB was absent. All items from the study’s constructs were entered into an exploratory factor analysis using unrotated principal component analysis. The results revealed that the first factor accounted for 28.4% of the total variance, which is well below the recommended threshold of 50%. This indicates that common method variance is not a serious concern in this study. Therefore, the risk of bias arising from the use of self-reported data is considered minimal. This comprehensive analysis of the CMB gives us confidence to move further with hypothesis testing.
Reliability analysis
The measuring model includes four tests to validate the constructs: indicator, discriminant validity, convergent validity, and internal consistency reliability [63]. According to Table 1, the lowest and greatest factor loadings are 0.716 and 0.913, respectively; while study [63, 64] suggests a minimum threshold value of 0.50. It implies that items are reliable. The CR and AVE must be at least 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. In exploratory research, CR levels between 0.60 and 0.70 are deemed appropriate, values between 0.70 and 0.90 are seen sufficient to good, and values over 0.95 are deemed undesirable. Table 1 shows that there are no issues with internal consistency or reliability.
Table 1.
Reliability and validity
| Construct | Item | Mean | SD | Factor Loading | VIF | Cronbach’s α | CR | AVE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sports Education | SE1 | 4.25 | 0.88 | 0.851* | 1.34 | 0.913 | 0.895 | 0.742 |
| SE2 | 4.11 | 0.84 | 0.736* | 1.57 | ||||
| SE3 | 4.31 | 0.90 | 0.852* | 1.34 | ||||
| SE4 | 4.41 | 0.83 | 0.841* | 1.36 | ||||
| SE5 | 3.58 | 0.87 | 0.893* | 1.22 | ||||
| Psychological Well-being | PW1 | 4.51 | 0.93 | 0.863* | 1.32 | 0.889 | 0.852 | 0.751 |
| PW2 | 4.56 | 0.82 | 0.821* | 1.44 | ||||
| PW3 | 4.72 | 0.15 | 0.716* | 1.64 | ||||
| PW4 | 4.36 | 0.82 | 0.828* | 1.43 | ||||
| PW5 | 4.58 | 0.63 | 0.842* | 1.37 | ||||
| Environmental Awareness | EN1 | 4.56 | 0.92 | 0.756* | 1.57 | 0.923 | 0.853 | 0.766 |
| EN2 | 4.33 | 0.86 | 0.821* | 1.44 | ||||
| EN3 | 4.89 | 0.87 | 0.863* | 1.32 | ||||
| EN4 | 4.75 | 0.83 | 0.819* | 1.42 | ||||
| EN5 | 4.36 | 0.79 | 0.827* | 1.43 | ||||
| Social Development | SD1 | 4.60 | 0.85 | 0.826* | 1.30 | 0.892 | 0.840 | 0.745 |
| SD2 | 4.53 | 0.82 | 0.819* | 1.34 | ||||
| SD3 | 4.68 | 0.80 | 0.835* | 1.33 | ||||
| SD4 | 4.77 | 0.82 | 0.821* | 1.35 | ||||
| SD5 | 4.59 | 0.81 | 0.853* | 1.32 | ||||
| Cognitive Focus | CF1 | 4.48 | 0.88 | 0.816* | 1.46 | 0.892 | 0.836 | 0.758 |
| CF2 | 4.53 | 0.82 | 0.828* | 1.43 | ||||
| CF3 | 4.82 | 0.83 | 0.863* | 1.32 | ||||
| CF4 | 4.63 | 0.81 | 0.817* | 1.46 | ||||
| CF5 | 4.58 | 0.87 | 0.798* | 1.51 | ||||
| Strategic Capacity | SC1 | 4.52 | 0.82 | 0.913* | 1.10 | 0.901 | 0.844 | 0.820 |
| SC2 | 4.77 | 0.80 | 0.893* | 1.22 | ||||
| SC3 | 4.69 | 0.83 | 0.818* | 1.46 | ||||
| SC4 | 4.78 | 0.79 | 0.893* | 1.22 | ||||
| SC5 | 4.42 | 0.80 | 0.816* | 1.46 |
Note: * shows significance at 1%
The “convergent validity” refers to the degree of convergence between a set of data. Given that the study’s minimum and highest AVE values are 0.742 and 0.820 respectively, the necessary condition is satisfied according to the criteria of Hair et al. [62]. To assess multicollinearity among constructs, Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values were examined. VIF measures the extent to which an independent variable is explained by other predictor variables in the model. A VIF value below 3 is generally considered acceptable, indicating that multicollinearity is not a concern (Hair et al., 2021). In this study, all VIF values were well below the threshold, confirming that the constructs do not suffer from multicollinearity and are statistically distinct from one another.
A circumstance where two indicators must be statistically different is known as discriminant validity. Fornell and Larcker [63] proposed traditional metrics of discriminant validity, which can be evaluated in two ways. The correlation and the AVE square root are compared in the first technique, while the squared correlation and the AVE are compared in the second. Henseler et al. [64] claimed that this traditional measure of discriminant validity is faulty. This is typically the case when all characteristics have outer loadings that fall within a certain range, i.e., when they are all between 0.65 and 0.85. Consequently, they proposed the ratio of heterotraits to monotraits (HTMT), a novel way to assess discriminant validity. The issue’s constructs are theoretically related, according to an HTMT score of 0.90, but the variables involved should receive a score of 0.85 due to their higher degree of differentiation. Stated otherwise, if the HTMT value in distinguishing variables exceeds 0.85. Table 2 demonstrates that the issue of discriminant validity is not present.
Table 2.
A Fornell–Larcker method for discriminant validity
| SE | PW | EN | SD | CF | SC | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SE | 0.885 | |||||
| PW | 0.526* | 0.847* | ||||
| EN | 0.468* | 0.453* | 0.851* | |||
| SD | 0.373* | 0.462* | 0.516* | 0.869* | ||
| CF | 0.285* | 0.391* | 0.428* | 0.587* | 0.847* | |
| SC | 0.466* | 0.509* | 0.493* | 0.456* | 0.532* | 0.820* |
Note: * shows significance at 1%
The results of discriminant validity are shown in Table 2, where the diagonal numbers show square root of AVE for each construct. Moreover, all the latent variables have AVE square roots that are higher than their correlation with other variable, thus indicating a good discriminant validity. The values of HTMT are less than standard value of 0.90, as reported in Table 3.
Table 3.
HTMT approach
| SE | PW | EN | SD | CF | SC | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SE | -- | 0.74 | 0.69 | 0.78 | 0.72 | 0.75 |
| PW | 0.74 | -- | 0.69 | 0.78 | 0.72 | 0.75 |
| EN | 0.69 | 0.67 | -- | 0.66 | 0.68 | 0.71 |
| SD | 0.78 | 0.70 | 0.66 | -- | 0.73 | 0.76 |
| CF | 0.72 | 0.79 | 0.68 | 0.73 | -- | 0.80 |
| SC | 0.75 | 0.81 | 0.71 | 0.76 | 0.80 | -- |
After that, Harman’s single-factor test is applied and findings show that CMV is not a significant issue [38].
All correlation values are positive, indicating that the constructs are positively associated with one another. Table 4 presents the correlation matrix, which shows the strength and direction of linear relationship among the key constructs in the study.
Table 4.
Pearson correlation
| SE | PW | EN | SD | CF | SC | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SE | 1.00 | |||||
| PW | 0.58 | 1.00 | ||||
| EN | 0.55 | 0.54 | 1.00 | |||
| SD | 0.62 | 0.56 | 0.50 | 1.00 | ||
| CF | 0.59 | 0.61 | 0.53 | 0.57 | 1.00 | |
| SC | 0.60 | 0.63 | 0.52 | 0.64 | 0.65 | 1.00 |
Table 4 presents the Pearson correlation coefficients among the six key constructs: Sports Education (SE), Psychological Well-being (PW), Environmental Awareness (EN), Social Development (SD), Cognitive Focus (CF), and Strategic Capacity (SC). The results indicate that all correlations are positive and fall within the moderate range, suggesting meaningful linear relationships among the variables. Sports Education shows moderate positive correlations with Social Development (r = 0.62), Strategic Capacity (r = 0.60), and Cognitive Focus (r = 0.59), highlighting its influence on students’ social, cognitive, and strategic outcomes. Psychological Well-being is most strongly correlated with Strategic Capacity (r = 0.63) and Cognitive Focus (r = 0.61), indicating the importance of mental well-being in enhancing higher-order skills. The Environmental Awareness construct shows its highest correlations with Sports Education (r = 0.55) and Psychological Well-being (r = 0.54), reflecting a moderate association. Social Development is strongly associated with Strategic Capacity (r = 0.64), while Cognitive Focus shows the highest correlation with Strategic Capacity (r = 0.65), suggesting that strategic thinking is closely linked to both social and cognitive development. Overall, the absence of excessively high correlations (all r < 0.85) confirms the distinctiveness of the constructs and supports their suitability for further structural modeling.
Results
The data analysis was conducted using SmartPLS version 4.0, a widely used software for Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). After establishing discriminant validity and examining the correlation matrix, the study proceeded to evaluate the structural model using PLS-SEM based on six key criteria [55]. PLS-SEM was selected as the primary analytical technique for this study. This choice is justified for several reasons. First, PLS-SEM is a variance-based method that is particularly well-suited for exploratory research, complex models with multiple constructs and indicators. Second, unlike Covariance-Based SEM, PLS-SEM does not require strict assumptions about multivariate normality, which aligns with this study’s data characteristics—normality tests indicated deviations from normal distribution. Third, PLS-SEM is better suited for relatively small to moderate sample sizes and allows for the simultaneous assessment of measurement and structural models, making it an appropriate and robust tool for the analysis of this model’s mediating and moderating effects. Fourth, PLS-SEM accommodates both reflective and formative constructs, allowing flexibility in operationalizing the variables used in this study.
Higher factor loadings reflect stronger associations between observed indicators and their respective latent constructs. Multicollinearity was addressed in the initial assessment phase. Subsequently, the model’s quality was examined by analyzing effect size (f²), the coefficient of determination (R²), and predictive relevance (Q²), all of which are essential for understanding the strength and predictive capability of the structural relationships. In addition, bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples was employed to assess the statistical significance of path coefficients through corresponding t-values. This step is important, as p-values indicate whether an effect exists, while effect sizes offer insight into the magnitude of that effect [62]. The results for R², F², VIF, and Q² are presented in Table 5.
Table 5.
Structural model
| Independent variable | R 2 | R2 adjusted | Interpretation |
|---|---|---|---|
| PW | 0.55 | 0.52 | Substantial |
| EN | 0.60 | 0.59 | Substantial |
| SD | 0.48 | 0.47 | Moderate |
| CF | 0.57 | 0.56 | Substantial |
| SC | 0.65 | 0.63 | Substantial |
| Dependent variable | Q2 value | ||
| PW | 0.37 | Moderate to high predictive relevance | |
| EN | 0.33 | Moderate | |
| SD | 0.42 | High predictive relevance | |
| CF | 0.40 | High predictive relevance | |
| SC | 0.45 | High predictive relevance | |
The hypothesis is tested using PLS-SEM analysis as it is considered a suitable method to apply when the data do not satisfy the hypothesis of normality [55, 62–64]. Table 6 provided the estimated results.
Table 6.
Structural parameter estimate
| Hypotheses | β | t-values | SD | f2 | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1 | 0.431* | 5.532 | 0.078 | 0.25 | Yes |
| H2 | 0.401* | 5.632 | 0.071 | 0.28 | Yes |
| H3 | 0.485* | 8.415 | 0.058 | 0.32 | Yes |
| H4 | 0.452* | 5.258 | 0.086 | 0.26 | Yes |
| H5 | 0.447* | 5.423 | 0.082 | 0.29 | Yes |
| H6 | 0.393* | 5.142 | 0.080 | 0.24 | Yes |
| H7 | 0.369* | 5.015 | 0.076 | 0.22 | Yes |
| H8 | 0.475* | 5.369 | 0.088 | Yes | |
| H9 | 0.415* | 6.152 | 0.067 | Yes |
“Note: * shows significance at 1%.”
The results of the PLS-SEM analysis provide strong empirical support for the proposed hypotheses, confirming the significant role of sports education in various dimensions of individual and societal development. The Fig. 2 is about the structural model diagram.
Fig. 2.
Structural Model
All hypotheses are supported at the 1% significance level, as indicated by their positive standardized path coefficients and high t-values (all above 5.2). Among them, H3 (sports education’s impact on the environmental awareness) shows the strongest relationship (β = 0.485, t = 8.415), suggesting that sports education plays a vital role in promoting sustainable practices, eco-friendly infrastructure, and social cohesion. Similarly, H1 (sports education fostering social development), H2 (enhancing psychological well-being), H4 (improving cognitive focus), and H5 (enhancing strategic capacity) exhibit strong positive effects, confirming that sports education develops teamwork, reduces stress, enhances mental clarity, and improves decision-making skills. Additionally, the mediation effect of psychological well-being (H8) on cognitive focus and the mediating effect of strategic capacity (H9) on social development are also supported, demonstrating that better psychological well-being enhances cognitive abilities and that higher strategic capacity strengthens the link between sports education and social development. To assess the nature of the mediation effects for H8 and H9, the Variance Accounted For (VAF) method was applied. VAF quantifies the proportion of the total effect explained by the indirect path. For H8, the indirect effect of sports education on cognitive focus via psychological well-being was 0.1577, and the total effect was 0.6097, yielding a VAF of 25.9%, which indicates partial mediation. For H9, the indirect effect of sports education on social development via strategic capacity was 0.1649, and the total effect was 0.5959, resulting in a VAF of 27.7%, also indicating partial mediation.
These results demonstrate that while psychological well-being and strategic capacity significantly mediate the relationships, direct effects remain significant, confirming partial mediation in both cases. These results confirm that psychological well-being and strategic capacity serve as significant but partial mediators, suggesting that other unmeasured factors may also play mediating roles. Effect sizes (f²) for these relationships fall within the moderate range, from 0.25 to 0.32, suggesting that sports education has a meaningful impact on psychological well-being, social development, environmental awareness, cognitive focus, and strategic capacity. To assess the overall model fit, the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) was used. SRMR reflects the average magnitude of discrepancies between observed and predicted correlations. The SRMR value for the model was 0.062, which is well below the conservative threshold of 0.08, indicating a good model fit [64].
Discussion
The findings of this study, based on PLS-SEM analysis, confirm that sports education has significant positive impacts on multiple dimensions, including social development, psychological well-being, environmental awareness, cognitive focus, and strategic capacity. These results align with and extend the existing body of literature, reinforcing the pivotal role of sports education in fostering individual and societal development.
The hypothesis 1 is confirmed that sports education has positive contributions to social development, supporting the argument that an involvement in a sport promotes cooperation, communication and social integration as well as the respect for others resulting in collective success. Sports skills improve the verbal as well as non-verbal aspects of communication skills and building strong relationships. It also develops leadership skills for decision-making, accountability, and motivation, which are the key factors of success in professional and social life [22]. Sports education further promotes social integration by bringing people from different backgrounds into one place and reducing social barriers. It further encourages the civic engagement as participants of sports are more likely to volunteer and engage in community development. In addition, organized sports activities reduce antisocial activities by conducting disciplined events that decrease aggression, delinquency, and social alienation [38]. Research findings note that sport develop the emotional intelligence, cultural awareness, and civic responsibility more effectively. Thus, inculcation of sport education into academic and community programs can greatly contribute to social unity, individual growth, and a peaceful community [47]. This finding is in line with previous empirical studies that have shown that sports-based education programs increase social bonding and interpersonal skills [6]. In addition, Holt et al. [25] indicate that sports participation leads to better peer relationships, leadership skills, and community engagement, which contribute to the formation of social capital. Our study corroborates this in a Chinese educational context and adds to the literature by incorporating sports education as a complementary variable.
The hypothesis 2 confirms the fact that sport education enhances the psychological well-being and psychological well-being improves the cognitive focus as described in hypothesis 6, earlier research also emphasized that physical activity leads to a decrease in stress and improves self-esteem and emotional resilience [26]. Neurobiological mechanisms that involve the release of endorphins and neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, contribute to improved mood and emotional stability [27]. The systematic reviews by Lubans et al. [8] show that sports participation significantly lessens symptoms of anxiety and depression. Endorphins are natural mood elevators that are secreted when physical activity is carried out during sports, helping to reduce stress, anxiety, and symptoms of depression. Regular participation in sports also fosters a sense of accomplishment, boosting self-confidence and self-worth, as individuals set and achieve personal or team goals [14]. Additionally, sports education provides a structured outlet for emotional expression, enabling individuals to develop coping mechanisms for managing frustration, pressure, and setbacks. Research has shown that students engaged in sport activities have lesser levels of psychological distress and higher life satisfaction than non-sporting students [21]. Sports encourage the discipline, concentration, and persistence which lead towards a solid and robust mindset. Incorporation of sports in education enhances the psychological well-being needed in various academic, social, and professional challenges. Notably, our results confirm these benefits even under high academic pressure environments common in China, indicating cross-cultural generalizability.
Hypothesis 3 supports the strong positive association between sports education and environmental awareness. The finding that sports education significantly enhances environmental awareness (β = 0.485, p < 0.01) supports and extends prior research. For example, McCullough and Kellison [2] emphasized how participation in outdoor sports encourages pro-environmental attitudes due to increased exposure to natural environments. It also indicates that sports organizations and educational institutions are incorporating sustainability efforts into their activities, which makes the participants environmentally conscious and responsible. Similarly, Eime et al. [7] and Lubans et al. [8] noted that structured sports activities that incorporate ecological themes foster environmental stewardship. Our results go further by demonstrating that even in non-ecological sports contexts, sports education programs can indirectly heighten environmental sensitivity—possibly through social norms and sustainability messaging embedded within school-based or community sports curricula. This contrasts slightly with earlier studies that found pro-environmental effects primarily within nature-specific sports (e.g., hiking, eco-tourism), suggesting a broader potential for environmental influence across various sports education formats. Through sports, a person becomes more conscious about cleanliness and green spaces, resulting in proper waste disposal, decrease in pollution, and conservation activities. Many sports activities take place in outdoor environments, which means they require sustainable use of resources and stewardship of the environment [28]. Sports education also fosters the values that include discipline and responsibility to extend the environmentally conscious behaviors, such as reducing carbon footprints, supporting green initiatives, and advocating for climate action. The educational institutions are adopting sustainability in sports programs through the implementation of energy-efficient facilities, promoting recycling, and eco-friendly sports gear [29]. Furthermore, mega sports events and global sport institutions are using their influence to shift towards sustainability campaigns and encourage the communities to change their lifestyle for a greener environment [30]. Previous research also highlighted that the involvement in sports activities increase the participation in green projects as the sports education could assist in forming pro-environmental attitude and behavior [31]. Studies also show that sports events and facilities can be a platform of environmental advocacy, and mechanisms for sustainable urban planning [65]. Thus, this study contributes to the literature by showing that environmental awareness is not just a by-product of ecological exposure, but can be an intentional outcome of structured sports education, especially in the Chinese context where national policy increasingly integrates environmental values into physical education programs.
The study further reveals that sport education significantly enhances cognitive focus as described in hypothesis 4. Physical activity promotes the increased blood flow to the brain, which enhances the connectivity of neurons and cognitive functions such as memory concentration and decision-making. Regular participation in sports requires to remain attentive, anticipating movements or responses, which in turn develops their focus and mental agility [51]. In addition, sports education teaches discipline and strategic thinking because athletes have to analyze situations, make quick decisions, and take precise actions under pressure [36]. Research has indicated that students who participate in sports perform better academically because they are able to maintain attention and reduce distractions [41]. The structured nature of sports also teaches time management and goal setting, which further enhances cognitive organization and efficiency [19]. Integrating sports education into learning environments allows the individuals to develop cognitive abilities that contribute to both academic success and problem-solving skills. This result is supported by empirical evidence showing that regular participation in physical activities improves attentional control, information processing, and executive functioning [12]. Neuroscientific research indicates that sports participation enhances brain plasticity and cognitive performance through increased blood flow and neurotrophic factor production [25]. Furthermore, a meta-analysis [14] confirms that exercise interventions improve cognitive focus, particularly in children and young adults, reinforcing the findings of the present study.
The study supports the positive effect of sports education on strategic capacity and strategic capacity on social development, supporting the hypotheses 5 and 7. This leads to the conclusion that sports-related activities build decision-making, planning, and adaptability competencies. Sports activities help to analyze the constantly changing situations, predicting opponents’ actions, and developing winning strategies, all enhance analytic ability and problem-solving ability [24]. Athletes must keep modifying their strategies according to shifting situations, which builds adaptability and resilience which are the components of strategic capacity. Moreover, sports education emphasizes goal setting, teamwork, and resource management, which are essential for developing leadership and long-term planning abilities [44]. Studies have shown that individuals having sports education tend to exhibit superior strategic thinking, as they are trained to make informed decisions under pressure while maintaining focus on long-term objectives [23]. Moreover, strategic capacity is critical in competitive settings, and there is evidence that sports involvement enhances the capacity of individuals to manage risks, anticipate challenges, and adapt to dynamic situations [25, 65, 66].
The results for H8 confirmed a partial mediation effect of psychological well-being between sports education and cognitive focus. The finding suggests that while psychological well-being plays a significant role in enhancing cognitive outcomes, sports education also exerts a direct influence on cognitive focus independent of emotional health. The hypothesis is also supported from empirical analysis regarding mediating role of psychological well-being in relation of sports education and cognitive focus. It is argued that sports education is a source to reduce stress level, anxiety, and depression through enhanced release of endorphins and serotonin, hence promoting a positive mood and well-being. It leads to improved concentration, better retention of memories and mental flexibility, ensuring the ability of a person to pay attention or focus on different issues and eventually process information quickly [67]. Without psychological well-being, stress and emotional distress can impair cognitive functions, which may lead to distractions, decreased attentional control, and impaired decision-making [39]. Studies have revealed that athletes who participate in sports and maintain good mental health have superior cognitive performance as compared with those suffering from psychological distress. Therefore, psychological well-being acts like a bridge between sports education and cognitive focus wherein the mental advantage acquired through body exercise. Research showed that psychological well-being is a critical determinant of cognitive performance, where decreased stress levels and improved emotional health are associated with enhanced cognitive functions [64]. Additionally, previous studies reveal that psychologically balanced individuals demonstrate greater concentration, better problem-solving, and learning ability, which confirms the importance of psychological well-being as a mediator [66]. The findings align with the Broaden-and-Build Theory, which posits that positive emotions expand individuals’ attentional and cognitive resources. However, the presence of a strong direct path also supports the Embodied Cognition perspective, suggesting that physical engagement itself sharpens executive function, decision-making, and mental clarity regardless of emotional state. Prior research has confirmed these dual pathways. Our study contributes to this literature by showing that both routes are significant, particularly within a Chinese sports education context where structured physical training also emphasizes discipline and attentional control.
The findings for H9 also revealed a partial mediation effect of strategic capacity in the relationship between sports education and social development. This indicates that sports education enhances social skills not only through the development of strategic abilities (e.g., planning, leadership, adaptability) but also directly through experiential interaction, such as teamwork and cooperation in sports settings. This complements the tenets of Social Capital Theory, which highlights the importance of social structures and group participation in developing community-oriented values. It also supports work by Holt et al. [3], which emphasizes both leadership development and peer interaction as pathways through which sports promote social outcomes. Notably, our study extends previous research by empirically validating this dual pathway using PLS-SEM and VAF-based classification. The results suggest that educational policy and sports programming should not rely exclusively on strategy training to improve social skills but should also emphasize direct collaborative engagement, peer feedback, and inclusive sports environments.
This study shows how strategic capacity works as a mediating variable in the relationship between sports education and social development, suggesting social benefits of sports education through higher degree of strategic capacities. Sports education involves critical thinking, decision making, and solving problems, which are part of the strategic capacities. Individuals with a high strategic capacity can move through social settings, create effective relationships, and contribute to the development of the community by making informed decisions and planning for the long term [68, 69]. In addition, teamwork, leadership, and resilience developed in sports education enable the individuals to overcome social challenges, resolve conflicts, and create inclusive environments. Research reports that athletes with matured strategic capacity has a very high degree of civic engagement and collaboration as they apply their skills for leadership roles in communities, workplaces, and policymaking [44]. Through the development of strategic thinking in tandem with physical training, sports education can contribute to social development. In support of this finding, research suggests that strategic decision-making skills improve leadership, teamwork, and resilience in social conditions [29, 30]. Additionally, studies show that higher strategic capacity enables the individuals to navigate complex social interactions more effectively, reinforcing the moderating role of strategic competence in sports-related social outcomes [16].
This study adopts an interdisciplinary perspective by integrating constructs from psychology, sociology, pedagogy, and environmental science to examine the broader developmental effects of sports education. While such diversity enriches the theoretical foundation, we acknowledge that modeling these complex constructs through simplified mediation paths may not fully capture the depth of each discipline. The primary objective of this research was exploratory in nature, aiming to identify significant relationships and possible mechanisms by which sports education relates to a range of personal and contextual outcomes. To manage this complexity while maintaining analytical coherence, PLS-SEM was employed due to its robustness in handling models with multiple constructs, non-normal data, and latent variable mediation.
Implications of the study
Theoretical implications
This study contributes in growing literature that seeks to find the multidimensional impact of sports education on the well-being of individuals and societies by integrating the perspectives of social, psychological, cognitive, and environmental frameworks. The results suggest that sports education have a positive influence on social cohesion, teamwork, and interpersonal relationships, thus confirming the social capital theory. This study extends the theory by providing empirical evidence that sports-based interventions can strengthen collective social trust and cooperation by showing that sports education enhances community integration, leadership, and civic engagement. The findings also go in line with self-determination theory, where a person’s motivation and well-being depends on the factors of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The strong influence of sports education on psychological well-being demonstrates how organized physical activities meet the intrinsic human needs, leading to emotional resilience, self-efficacy, and reduced anxiety. Moreover, the study provides empirical evidence for theories related to cognitive development and enhancement of executive function through physical activity. The findings contribute to the understanding of how physical activity enhances cognitive focus by showing that sports education significantly improves attentional control, information processing, and decision-making. The study also shows that sports education enhances strategic capacity, supporting theories of decision-making and leadership development. This further extends existing research into the role of sports in developing problem-solving abilities and strategic competencies, which are important for professional and personal development.
Practical implications
Beyond its theoretical contributions, the study offers several actionable insights for policymakers, educators, institutions, and sports organizations for broader societal and economic benefits.
Given the positive impact of sports education on social development, cognitive focus, and psychological well-being, educational institutions should incorporate structured sports programs into their curricula. Schools and universities should emphasize not only physical activity but also team-building exercises, leadership training, and strategic thinking in sports-based education models.
The strong correlation between sports education and environmental awareness suggests that governments and sports organizations should promote eco-friendly sports initiatives. Policies should encourage the use of sustainable sports infrastructure, energy-efficient stadiums, and recycling programs in sports facilities to ensure long-term environmental benefits.
The findings emphasize that sports education can foster community engagement and social integration. Policymakers should invest in community sports programs, particularly for underprivileged and marginalized populations, to enhance social cohesion, reduce crime rates, and strengthen community trust.
Given the significant role of sports education in reducing stress and improving emotional resilience, healthcare and education sectors should use sports-based interventions to address mental health challenges. Schools and workplaces should encourage structured physical activity programs to promote well-being, reduce anxiety, and enhance overall life satisfaction.
Organizations can utilize sports education as a tool for leadership and decision-making training. Corporate programs that integrate sports-based strategic thinking exercises can enhance problem-solving skills, resilience, and adaptability, preparing individuals for complex professional environments.
Limitations and future research
While the study provides valuable insights, it has some limitations:
The cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causal relationships. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs to explore causality.
The study relies on self-reported data, which may introduce bias. Objective measures, such as physiological indicators of stress or cognitive performance tests, could enhance validity.
The sample may not be representative of all populations. Future studies should include diverse demographic groups and wider sample to generalize the findings.
The inclusion of mediating variables was based on well-established theoretical grounds and existing empirical research, serving as a foundational model for future. We recognize that future studies may benefit from more detailed disciplinary frameworks, longitudinal designs, or mixed-method approaches to deepen understanding of the causal processes and contextual factors involved.
Conclusions
This study explored the relationship among sports education, psychological well-being, social development, cognitive focus, strategic capacity, and environmental awareness factors in the context of China. The study made quantitative analysis through applying structural equation model by using a diverse sample of 869 participants. The findings underscore the crucial role of sports education for various aspects of individual and social development. The conclusion that emerges from the study is the strong positive influence of sports education on social development and psychological well-being. The sports activities have profound benefits on mental health, strategic capacity, and cognitive focus. The emotional and mental benefits derived from sports not only reflect personal growth but also align with previous research that emphasizes the social development through sports education due to respondents’ increased levels of active participation in organized sports settings, and improved interpersonal relationships. This confirms the theoretical premise that sports education serves as a critical tool for building social capital, facilitating collaboration, and enhancing communication among individuals. Another key finding regarding the relation between sports education and cognitive focus. It is argued that sports education significantly enhances the ability of individuals to maintain attention and focus, encompassing the mental clarity and awareness. This finding is consistent with prior research that highlighted the role of sports in improving cognitive functions such as concentration, mindfulness, and mental discipline. These findings suggest that sports education can serve as an effective method for enhancing cognitive focus, which is essential for academic performance, professional development, and overall mental agility. It is also found that strategic capacity is a crucial mediator between sports education and social development. This mediating effect highlights the dual impact of sports education on both individual cognitive skills and social engagement. Sports education not only fosters cognitive focus and psychological well-being but also enhances an individual’s ability to think strategically. The development of strategic capacity was significantly linked to participants’ involvement in sports education. This indicates that sports education cultivates strategic thinking skills, which are transferable to various contexts beyond sports, such as professional and personal life. It may be argued that the ability to devise and implement strategies within sports activities appears to promote a more comprehensive development of an individual’s cognitive and behavioral capabilities. In this context, sports education becomes not only a tool for personal improvement but also a driver of societal progress. The study found that sports education improves the environmental awareness. The respondents highlighted the importance of clean, green spaces and pollution-free surroundings as key components in enabling them to engage in sports education.
The findings highlight the importance of integrating sports education into educational and developmental frameworks, particularly in the context of China. By enhancing psychological well-being, cognitive focus, and strategic capacity, sports education not only benefits the individual but also promotes broader social development. Policymakers are encouraged to invest in and expand sports education programs, recognizing their potential to foster well-rounded and capable individuals who may contribute meaningfully to society.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Author contributions
X.Y. conceptualized and formal analysis; J.T. Formal Analysis and Revised the manuscript; G.R.M. writing original draft. All authors equally contributed for preparation of this manuscript.
Funding
The authors received no specific funding for this research.
Data availability
The data gain be gained from authors without any reservation.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Ethics Committee of University of Education approved the study. All participants provided an informed written consent to participate.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Abbreviations
Not applicable.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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