Table 2.
- Definitions and assessments of long covid and psychiatric history
| N° | Author(s) and year | Definition of long-covid | Assessment of long-covid | Definition of psychiatric or addiction history | Assessment of psychiatric or addiction history |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Subramanian et al., 2022 [35] | WHO definition: a history of probable or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection with symptoms that last for at least 2 months and can not be explained by an alternative diagnosis | Declarative | Depression/Anxiety/Smoking (ex-smoker, current smoker)/Eating disorder/Substance use disorder/Learning disability | Database of primary care medical records |
| 2 | Wang and al., 2022 [36] | Long-term COVID-19 symptoms (lasting for more than 4 weeks) | Declarative | Probable depression (subclinique or yes)/Probable Anxiety (subclinic or yes)/Current smoker |
Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-4) Declarative |
| 3 | Grisanti and al., 2022 [37] | Signs and symptoms developed during or following a disease consistent with COVID-19 and which continue for more than four weeks but they are not explained by alternative diagnoses | Declarative | Smoking (non-smoker, smoker, ex-smoker) | Declarative |
| 4 | Garjani and al., 2022 [38] | Long-standing COVID-19 symptoms for ≥ 4 weeks | Declarative | Anxiety and/or depression | Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) scores |
| 5 | Craparo and al., 2022 [39] | NICE definition: a clinical condition that includes both ongoingsymptomatic COVID-19 infection, where symptoms last 4 to 12 weeks, and post-COVID-19 symptoms that can persist beyond 12 weeks after recovery | Declarative | Personnality traits/Alexithymia | Personality Inventory for DSM-5 Brief Form (PID-5-BF)/Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (TAS-20) |
| 6 | Tene and al., 2022 [40] | Definite long Covid: International Classification of Diseases (ICD) diagnosis code of post–COVID-19 Probable long Covid: post-COVID symptoms more than 4 weeks after the date of first positive RT-PCR | Diagnosed by a physician | Smoking (ever) | Declarative |
| 7 | De Oliveira and al., 2022 [41] | Persistence of at least one physical and/or mental health symptom 4 or more weeks after disease onset | Declarative | Smoking/Alcoholism | Declarative |
| 8 | Ohira and al., 2022 [42] | Persistence of symptoms after recovering from the acute phase of COVID- 19 | Electronic medical records and clinical summaries of patients | Depression/Schizophrenia/Asperger's spectrum syndrom | Data from medical records |
| 9 | Bai and al., 2022 [43] | Persistence of ≥ 1 physical and/or psychological symptoms for more than 4 weeks after recovery from acute illness COVID-19 | Declarative, Medical examination, Scale (HADS and IES-R) | Smoking | Declarative |
| 10 | Daitch and al., 2022 [44] | Persistent symptomatology following COVID-19 infection impacting physical and cognitive functions and leading to reduced quality of life | Declarative, Questionnaire | Smoking | Declarative |
| 11 | Afroze and al., 2022 [45] | Onset or persistence of at least one self-reported symptom of COVID-19 more than 1 month | Declarative, stuctured clinical interview, tools | Cigarette smoking | Declarative |
| 12 | Vásconez-González and al., 2023 [46] | Persisting symptoms after COVID-19 infection | Declarative, Questionnaire | Smoke/Alcohol | Declarative |
| 13 | Frontera and al., 2022 [47] | According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria as new or persistent symptoms occurring ≥ 4 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 infection | Declarative | Psychiatric History | Declarative |
| 14 | Shukla and al., 2023 [48] | Any newly occurring or remaining symptoms or signs in COVID-19 patients after 3 months (12 weeks) of discharge from the hospital (or declared discharged incase of non-hospitalized patients | Declarative | Smoking/Alcohol | Declarative |
| 15 | Jacobs and al., 2023 [49] | Self-reported continuing or new symptoms 28 days or more following the test date for the acute infection | Declarative | Cigarette smoking/Depression and anxiety | Declarative |
| 16 | Knight and al., 2022 [50] | Syndrome of persistent symptoms, generally for more than 4 weeks after recovery from acute COVID-19 | Declarative | No psychiatric or addictive history sought | Not applicable |
| 17 | Sansone and al., 2022 [51] | Symptoms persisting for at least three weeks since positive swab test for SARS-CoV-2 | Declarative | Depression/Smoking | Declarative |
| 18 | Yavuz and al., 2022 [52] |
Persistence of symptoms following acute COVID-19 infection, lasting at least two months after recovery from COVID-19 Only prolonged post-COVID-19 neurological symptoms are studied |
Declarative | Depression/Smoking | Declarative and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) |
| 19 | Gutiérrez-Canales and al., 2022 [53] | Persistent symptoms for months after acute illness | Declarative | Smoking | Declarative |
| 20 | Hastie and al., 2022 [54] | WHO definition: a history of probable or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection with symptoms that last for at least 2 months and can not be explained by an alternative diagnosis | Declarative | Depression/Anxiety | ICD10 codes F30-F33, or antidepressant, hypnotic or anxiolytic (BNF 4.1;4.3), or self-report |
| 21 | Fleischer and al., 2022 [55] | WHO definition: a history of probable or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection with symptoms that last for at least 2 months and can not be explained by an alternative diagnosis | Neurological and physical examination according to standards recommended by the European Academy of Neurology including neurovascular, elec-trophysiological, and blood analysis. In addition, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and lumbar puncture if necessary | Previous psychiatric condition (Depression/Anxiety disorder/post-traumatic stress disorder/somatic disorder/adjustment disorder/borderline disorder) | Declarative |
| 22 | Margalit and al., 2022 [56] |
Ongoing symptoms persisting at least 4 weeks following the onset of acute coronavirus disease 2019 Focusing in long covid fatigue in this study |
physical examination by an internist, questionnaires (evaluating 14 post-Covid symptoms from 0 to 3 for intensity), cognitive fatigue task and and blood sampling | Smoking status (never, past, current)/Use of cannabis/Use of alcohol | Declarative |
| 23 | Gasnier and al., 2022 [57] | Signs and symptoms that develop during or after an infection consistent with COVID-19, continue for more than 12 weeks and are not explained by an alternative diagnosis | Declarative Cognitive impairment screening questionnaire from the European AIDS Clinical Society | Psychiatric History |
Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) Systematic interview with a psychiatrist Mini International Neuropsychiatric Inter-view (MINI 5.0) |
| 24 | Loosen and al., 2022 [58] | WHO definition: a history of probable or confirmed SARS CoV-2 infection, usually 3 months from the onset of COVID-19 with symptoms and that last for at least 2 months and cannot be explained by an alternative diagnosis |
Original diagnosis text of the physicians Following ICD-10 diagnoses were additionally used as surrogates for LCS: chronic fatigue (ICD-10: G93.3), abnormalities of breathing (ICD-10: R06), disturbances of smell and taste (ICD-10: R43), malaise and fatigue (ICD-10: R53, disturbances in attention (ICD-10: R41.8) |
Depression | ICD-10: F32, F33 |
| 25 | Buonsenso and al., 2022 [59] | WHO definition: Set of symptomatic sequelae that typically develop within three months of COVID-19 infection, last at least two months, and cannot be explained by alternative diagnoses | Declarative | Smoke/Alcohol | Declarative |
| 26 | Lhuillier and al., 2022 [60] | Any COVID-19-related symptoms that lasted at least 4 weeks after symptom onset | Declarative | Depressive Symptoms | Mean of depressive symptoms using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) |
| 27 | Tleyjeh and al., 2022 [61] | Chronic symptoms or long-term sequelae of COVID-19 lasting beyond 4 weeks after onset of symptoms | Declarative | Smoking status: Never smoked, Previous smoker, Current smoke | Declarative |
| 28 | Kidwai and al., 2022 [62] | Persistent symptoms and/or delayed or long–term complications of SARS–CoV–2 infection beyond 4 weeks from the onset of symptoms | Declarative | Depression | Declarative |
| 29 | Magdy and al., 2021 [63] | Recovered COVID-19 (= improvement in all COVID-19 symptoms, no fever for three consecutive days and two consecutive nasopharyngeal swabs were negative for SARS-CoV-2 at a 24 h interval) adults with persistent neuropathic pain |
Neurological examination validating neuropathic pain Neuropathic pain in 4 questions (DN4 ≥ 4/10) |
Depression/Smoking/Drug abuse | Declarative/Diagnostic and screening according to Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–5) |
| 30 | Abdelhafiz and al., 2022 [64] | Symptoms persisting for more than 12 weeks after infection | Declarative | Smoking | Declarative |
| 31 | Ghoshal and al., 2021 [65] | Long-term gastrointestinal illness following acute COVID-19 infection | Declarative | Addiction (tobacco, alcohol) | Declarative |
| 32 | Peter and al., 2022 [66] | WHO definition: symptoms lasting for at least two months, being unexplained by an alternative diagnosis, and occurring three months from the acute infection | Declarative | Mental disorders/Smoking (current, former or never) | Declarative |
| 33 | Alkwai and al., 2022 [67] | NICE definition: signs and symptoms that develop during or after an infection, consistent with COVID-19, continue for more than 12 weeks and are not explained by an alternative diagnosis | Declarative | Anxiety/Depression/Other mental health disorder | Declarative |
| 34 | Colizzi and al., 2022 [68] | WHO definition: a history of probable or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, usually 3 months from the onset, with symptoms that last for at least 2 months and cannot be explained by an alternative diagnosis | Declarative | No psychiatric or addictive history sought | Not applicable |
| 35 | Martinez and al., 2021 [69] | Symptoms persisting 90 days after COVID-19 diagnosis | Declarative | History of depression or state of exhaustion | Declarative |
| 36 | Uygur and al., 2021 [70] |
Symptoms that persist for 28 days after a COVID-19 diagnosis This study focuses on post-Covid fatigue |
Declarative | History of psychiatric disease/History of psychiatric drug | Declarative |