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. 2025 Sep 29;16:1646800. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1646800

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Copyright © 2025 Hojecki, Tursi, Livingston, Weiner and Gary.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

PMC Copyright notice

Diagram illustrating the delivery and effect of pDNA and mRNA vaccines. Steps include formulation, injection, and processes like antigen shedding and cell transfection. Outcomes on immune cells are depicted, highlighting activation, functionality, and metabolism enhancements. — Mechanisms of molecular adjuvant action. Plasmid DNA (pDNA) or messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules encoding the antigen and adjuvant are formulated (1) and delivered (2) by direct injection or other physical delivery methods such as jet, electroporation (EP), or lipid nanoparticle (LNP) encapsulation.