Table 1.
Molecular adjuvants by class.
| Cytokines | Antigens | Significant Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| IL-12 |
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (Mtb), SARS-CoV-2, Listeria monocytogenes-OVA |
Sustained immunity to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-LNP, enhances CTL responses | Morelli et al. (51) Brook et al. (44) Aunins et al. (52) |
| IL-2 | rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus VP60, infectious bursal disease virus, Edwardsiella tarda, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, autoimmune diabetes | Enhances T cell proliferation and protection across many animal and disease models | Deng et al. (53) Huo et al. (54) Tang et al. (55) Hao et al. (56) Pagni et al. (57) |
| IL-4 | Influenza hemagglutinin, coccidiosis | Combination approaches preserve Th1-related responses |
Wei et al. (58) Tan et al. (59) |
| IL-15 | SIV-Gag/SIV-Nef, HPV16 E6/E7 |
Enhances CTL responses despite delivery constraints regarding trans-presentation | Leroy et al. (60) Zhou et al. (61) |
| IL-18 | genotype VII Newcastle Disease Virus | Enhances Th1-related responses in chickens and murine cancer models | Wang et al. (62) Yadav et al. (63) |
|
IL-28B
(IFN-λ3) |
H1N1 (inactivated virus vaccine), Newcastle Disease Virus, HPV16 E6/E7 |
Promotes robust CD8+ activation by Treg suppression | Sabbaghi et al. (64) Amoia et al. (65) Zhou et al. (61) |
| GM-CSF | SARS-CoV-2 WT, Omi, Influenza HA |
Enhances germinal center formation | Liu et al. (66) Wei et al. (58) |
| Chemokines | Antigens | Significant Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| CCR10 Ligands (CCL27, CCL28) | SARS-CoV-2 WT, BA.2, XBB.1.5, influenza, HIV-1 env |
Drive robust mucosal immunity in murine models of challenge | Gary et al. (13) Gary et al. (67) Liaw et al. (68) |
| CCR7 Ligands (CCL19, CCL21) |
Vibrio anguillarum antigen (VAA), VHSV, H7N9 HA |
Enhance systemic & mucosal immunity across animal models | Xu et al. (69) Kim et al. (70) Xiang et al. (71) |
| Co-stimulators | Antigens | Significant Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| CD40L | autoimmune glomerulonephritis (EAG), SARS-CoV-2, Tembusu virus, bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) | Potent multi-faceted immune enhancement via dendritic cell activation across animal models | Li et al. (72) Tamming et al. (73) Huang et al. (74) Kornuta et al. (75) |
| CD80/86 | Vibrio anguillarum OmpK | increased IgM+ and CD4+ populations | Liu et al. (76) |
| Immunomodulators | Antigens | Significant Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adenosine deaminase | HIV-1, SARS-CoV-2 | Mitigates age-associated immunosenescence in mouse models | Gary et al. (13) Cusimano et al. (8) Gary et al. (7) |
| C3d | Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) ORF2 , SARS-CoV-2 | Significantly increases antibody responses | Hou et al. (77) Li et al. (78) |