Geroscience and aging interventions in dogs and cats: from mechanisms to clinical care

Abstract

Importance

Advances in preventive care, nutrition, and veterinary specialization have extended the lifespan of companion animals, creating a clinical need to optimize healthspan in geriatric dogs and cats. This review synthesizes current geroscience evidence, highlighting the biological mechanisms—mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammaging, and cellular senescence—that contribute to multiple chronic diseases, and identifies practical, evidence-based interventions to mitigate these processes.

Observations

Analysis of longitudinal cohort studies, including the Dog Aging Project and the Golden Retriever Lifetime Study, confirms that genetics, environment, and lifestyle interact to shape aging trajectories. Data from medical record and insurance databases demonstrate increasing longevity but with marked breed- and size-associated disparities. Preventive strategies supported by robust evidence include nutritional modulation (caloric restriction, macronutrient balancing, bioactive compounds), pharmacologic agents (mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors, senolytics), and lifestyle interventions (structured exercise, rehabilitation, cognitive enrichment). Integrative multimodal care—combining dietary, physical, medical, and environmental strategies—consistently delays frailty, reduces late-life illness duration, and sustains functional independence. Successful long-term outcomes rely heavily on caregiver engagement and adherence, facilitated by education and shared decision-making.

Conclusions and relevance

Veterinary geroscience reframes aging as a modifiable process, offering translational insights aligned with the One Health concept. Standardized aging assessments, increased feline-specific research, and international longevity surveillance are needed to refine precision geriatric care. Applying coordinated, data-driven interventions in clinical settings can enhance both lifespan and quality of life in aging pets, with potential to inform human aging strategies.

INTRODUCTION

As longevity continues to increase among companion animals, veterinary medicine is entering a new era—one that moves beyond managing age-associated diseases to actively modulating the underlying biological processes of aging. Traditional geriatric care has emphasized treatment of chronic conditions after diagnosis; however, a paradigm shift is underway toward anticipatory, systems-level approaches that aim to preserve physiological function, delay disease onset, and extend healthspan [1,2].

Geroscience offers a compelling framework for this transition. Rather than viewing diseases in isolation, this discipline posits that aging itself is a primary driver of multiple chronic pathologies. In humans and laboratory animals, targeting upstream aging mechanisms—such as mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, and chronic inflammation—has delayed or even reversed age-related decline [3,4]. Given the prevalence of multimorbidity and functional deterioration in aging pets, this model holds strong translational potential for veterinary practice [5].

Large-scale longitudinal studies, including the Dog Aging Project (DAP) and the Golden Retriever Lifetime Study (GRLS), are generating valuable data on genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors influencing healthy aging in companion animals. Electronic medical record (EMR) and insurance databases document increasing longevity, with notable breed- and size-related disparities. These initiatives are enabling the identification of aging biomarkers, breed-specific vulnerabilities, and optimal windows for intervention—tools that support personalized, evidence-based geriatric care [6,7].

Clinical applications are beginning to reflect this evolution, with strategies such as nutritional modulation, controlled physical activity, environmental enrichment, and pharmacologic interventions—including mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors and senolytics—being explored [8,9]. Nonetheless, the integration of geroscience into routine veterinary care remains inconsistent and in early stages [8,9].

Building upon our companion article’s overview of aging biology, this review focuses on the clinical translation of geroscientific principles. We present data-driven strategies to monitor, predict, and positively influence aging trajectories, reframing aging not as an inevitable decline, but as a modifiable and therapeutically actionable process [3,10].

METHODS

This narrative review synthesizes current evidence on geroscience, longevity trends, and anti-aging strategies in companion animals, with a focus on clinical application. Literature was identified through PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, emphasizing peer-reviewed studies, longitudinal cohorts, and clinical trials in dogs, cats, and relevant translational models.

Primary sources included longitudinal studies, EMR datasets, and insurance-based analyses, supported by veterinary reports and epidemiologic surveys. Anti-aging approaches were assessed from mechanistic basis to clinical outcomes, focusing on nutrition, caloric restriction (CR), macronutrient balance, targeted nutraceuticals, pharmacologic agents, rehabilitation, and caregiver engagement. Comparative perspectives were framed within the One Health model to connect veterinary and human geroscience.

During manuscript preparation, ChatGPT-4o (OpenAI, USA) was used for grammar correction, stylistic refinement, and content organization. The authors take full responsibility for the accuracy, scientific integrity, and referencing of all AI-assisted content.

OBSERVATIONS

Advances in preventive care, nutrition, and veterinary specialization have extended the lives of dogs and cats, shifting focus from reactive treatment to proactive, healthspan-centered care. Geroscience views aging as a modifiable driver of chronic disease, targeting pathways such as mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, and chronic inflammation to delay frailty and functional decline. Section 1 highlights healthspan as a clinical goal, integration of translational geroscience into the One Health model, and the move toward anticipatory, personalized geriatric care. It reviews major canine aging studies—the DAP and the GRLS—and analyzes longevity trends from historical, EMR, and insurance data, noting disparities by breed and size. Section 2 outlines anti-aging strategies in veterinary practice, including nutritional approaches, pharmacological options, and lifestyle measures. It underscores caregiver engagement and multimodal care to sustain vitality, delay disease, and improve quality of life. Two graphical summaries have been included to visually synthesize the key concepts and take-home messages of this review, facilitating reader understanding of the biological mechanisms, clinical implications, and evidence-based interventions in veterinary geroscience (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of geroscience-informed strategies in dogs and cats. Aging mechanisms (mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammaging, cellular senescence, epigenetic changes) contribute to frailty and chronic disease. Evidence-based interventions --nutritional modulation, lifestyle and structured exercise, pharmacologic agents, and integrative multimodal care --can delay frailty, reduce illness duration, and improve quality of life.

Section 1: Geroscience and aging care for life expectancy increasing in pets

Healthspan and translational geroscience

Healthspan refers to the period of life during which an individual maintains functional independence, physiological integrity, and quality of life—distinct from mere lifespan, which denotes the total duration of life [10]. In companion animals, extending healthspan is increasingly prioritized by veterinarians and pet owners alike as pets live longer due to improved preventive care and nutrition [2]. While lifespan extension can be achieved with medical intervention, it is healthspan that truly matters in geriatric veterinary medicine, ensuring animals age with mobility, cognitive function, and emotional wellbeing preserved [11].

Translational geroscience: the One Health model

Translational geroscience is rooted in the hallmarks of aging: genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, and altered intercellular communication [3,12]. The objective is to target these hallmarks through interventions that delay systemic degeneration, prevent disease or delay onset, and optimize functional longevity [10]. This strategy, long explored in biogerontology, is now entering companion animal medicine, with growing interest in applying dietary, pharmacologic, and environmental interventions to extend healthspan in aging pets [6].

Geroscience aligns naturally with the One Health model, which recognizes the interdependence of human, animal, and environmental health [13]. Studies in dogs and cats can inform, and be informed by, human aging research—creating a bidirectional pipeline of discovery [6]. This comparative framework allows for testing of anti-aging interventions (e.g., CR, senolytics, rapamycin) in a clinically relevant species before human translation, while concurrently enhancing geriatric veterinary care [5]. Understanding and extending healthspan—not just lifespan—is the new frontier in companion animal aging care [6]. By adopting translational geroscience principles and viewing dogs and cats as integrated aging models, veterinarians are poised to lead a new era of proactive, life-quality-centered care [6]. This vision aligns with the One Health model, ensuring that advances in aging science benefit not only humans, but also the animals that share our homes and lives [13].

Paradigm shift in veterinary geriatrics

Veterinary geriatric medicine is undergoing a paradigm shift: from treating diseases as they occur, to proactively maintaining vitality and delaying frailty through early screening, lifestyle modification, and strategic therapies [1]. This shift emphasizes prevention, personalization, and preservation—mirroring trends in human longevity medicine [1]. Clinicians are encouraged to assess not only age in years but biological aging markers (e.g., sarcopenia, immune function, metabolic status), facilitating individualized healthspan plans for aging pets [14]. Biologic markers of aging, such as telomere length, are expected to be available for clinical use.

Preliminary findings from longitudinal aging studies in dogs

1) Comparative insights and clinical implications from DAP and GRLS

The DAP and the GRLS represent the two most comprehensive canine aging cohorts established to date [6,7]. While distinct in design—DAP as a large-scale, multi-breed, environmental aging cohort and GRLS as a breed-specific, cancer-focused longitudinal study—their shared goals have yielded invaluable complementary insights [15,16]. Both initiatives aim to understand how genetics, lifestyle, and environment influence disease onset, aging trajectories, and longevity [17,18]. Together, DAP and GRLS establish the viability and value of longitudinal cohort research in veterinary medicine [6]. Their complementary approaches offer insight into both shared and breed-specific mechanisms of aging and disease, with direct relevance to prevention, diagnosis, and personalized care [7]. As their datasets mature, these studies will not only improve the lives of companion animals but also enhance our understanding of aging in a broader One Health context [15].

2) Shared observations across aging cohorts

Several findings consistently emerge across both DAP and GRLS [6]. First, body size is a dominant predictor of lifespan and healthspan, with larger dogs demonstrating earlier onset of chronic conditions such as osteoarthritis, cardiac disease, and neoplasia [18]. Second, early-life factors—such as nutrition, social exposure, and neuter timing—appear to exert lasting effects on morbidity patterns [19]. Both studies also highlight the high prevalence in later life of age-associated conditions, including obesity, dental disease, and cognitive dysfunction.

3) Environmental and lifestyle risk factors

GRLS provides granular data on environmental chemical exposures and their correlation with cancer incidence in Golden Retrievers [7]. Meanwhile, DAP emphasizes owner lifestyle, household routines, urbanization, and physical activity patterns as contributors to health outcomes [15]. Both studies reinforce the idea that modifiable environmental variables play a substantial role in shaping aging phenotypes and disease risk [6].

4) Breed-specific vs. pan-breed insights

GRLS's strength lies in deep analysis of a genetically homogenous population prone to specific cancers, enabling high-resolution mapping of disease pathways [7]. DAP's power lies in diversity—across breeds, body sizes, and environments—which allows researchers to generalize findings and identify robust, cross-cutting risk patterns [15]. Together, they support both personalized veterinary medicine and population-level policy recommendations [6].

5) Clinical applications: from prediction to prevention

Insights from these cohorts are transforming veterinary practice [15]. Frailty indices developed in DAP, based on mobility, weight, behavior, and caregiver observations, may serve as screening tools for early intervention [20,21,22]. GRLS data on genetic susceptibility and toxin exposures guide clinicians in making breed-specific lifestyle recommendations [22]. These include adjusting neuter timing, modifying diet, and reducing exposure to household chemicals [19].

6) Integration into geriatric health plans

Veterinarians are now beginning to incorporate data from aging cohort studies into routine care for older pets [6]. Examples include using aging trajectory models to recommend the frequency of check-ups, tailoring nutrition plans based on activity level and breed size, and counseling pet owners about environmental enrichment and cognitive stimulation for aging brains [23].

7) Implications for feline and other species geriatrics

Although DAP and GRLS focus on dogs, their methods and findings offer a foundation for feline aging studies and other species-specific initiatives [24]. Cats, like dogs, experience chronic kidney disease (CKD), hyperthyroidism, and cognitive decline with age [25]. A future feline aging cohort could leverage lessons from DAP and GRLS to establish standardized assessments, aging biomarkers, and interventions relevant to the feline population [26].

Historical trends in pet longevity

Over the past five decades, anecdotal observations and owner narratives have suggested a notable increase in the life expectancy of companion animals [2]. Today’s pet owners commonly report their dogs and cats reaching their mid-teens and even early twenties—a marked contrast from previous generations [2]. Historically, the average lifespan of dogs in the 1970s and 1980s was often cited as 8–10 years, with large breeds averaging slightly less and small breeds occasionally exceeding 12 years [27]. For cats, especially those living outdoors or semi-independently, reported lifespans rarely surpassed 10 years [27]. These estimates were shaped by limited access to veterinarians who restricted their practice to care of companion animals, limited access to specialists, limited diagnostics especially for screening, inconsistent preventive care and accident-prone living conditions [2]. Several transformative developments in veterinary practice began to shift this trajectory [28,29,30]. The rise of preventive medicine—including routine vaccinations, deworming, and monthly parasite control—reduced mortality from infectious diseases like parvovirus, distemper, and feline leukemia [31,32]. The availability of veterinary specialists for referral and consultation. Improved nutrition through commercial diets, life-stage formulations, and therapeutic diets contributed to healthier growth and long-term organ protection [33]. The advent of spay-neuter campaigns in many countries not only curbed overpopulation but also conferred longevity benefits to pets [34]. Neutered pets were found to have lower rates of reproductive cancers, aggression-related injuries, and stray-related trauma.

1) Veterinary and cultural shifts

The human-animal bond itself has transformed significantly [35]. Companion animals are now viewed as family members, with owners investing in advanced diagnostics, chronic disease management, rehabilitation, and palliative care [35]. As a result, age-related diseases such as osteoarthritis, CKD, and cognitive dysfunction are now routinely diagnosed and managed [2,28,29]. Banfield’s data indicated that average feline life expectancy rose from 11.0 to 12.1 years between 2002 and 2012, while for dogs, it increased from 10.5 to 11.8 years. Small-breed dogs showed the greatest gains, likely due to their lower baseline risk for early-onset diseases and the availability of more geriatric-specific care [27,36]. It is worth noting, however, that the observed increases in average lifespan may reflect shifts in the age distribution of pets presenting to clinics, rather than true population-level longevity gains. EMR-based estimates, including Banfield’s, are susceptible to selection bias, particularly if more older animals are represented due to changes in owner behavior or veterinary care access over time [37,38].

The historical arc of pet longevity reflects a convergence of advances in preventive care, nutrition, veterinary technology and specialization, and client education [36]. Despite the positive trends in canine and feline longevity, these gains are not uniform [27]. Breed size remains a critical determinant, with giant breeds like Great Danes and Mastiffs still showing median lifespans of 6–8 years [27]. This size-dependent variation may provide insight into growth-hormone–linked aging mechanisms [39]. Additionally, some breeds are prone to serious conditions, likely genetic, that shorten the average lifespan of the breed. For example, Cavalier King Charles Spaniels are uniquely predisposed to myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD): over 50 % develop murmurs by age 5, and nearly all by age 10, making MMVD the leading cause of death in the breed [40] Reflecting this, their median lifespan is around 9.9–10 years, notably lower than related small breeds [41]. Similarly, Bernese Mountain Dogs face a high burden of histiocytic sarcoma (HS), a rapidly progressive and often fatal cancer: over half die of malignant tumors, and approximately one-seventh due to HS specifically. Median survival after diagnosis is typically measured in just months (e.g., 49 days), which substantially reduces average longevity; Swiss cohort data indicate a median lifespan of ~8.4 years [42,43].

EMR-based evidence of increasing longevity in dogs and cats

The increasing use of EMRs in veterinary practice has enable new insights into population-level health trends in companion animals. Among the most prominent is Banfield Pet Hospital, which operates more than 1,000 clinics across the United States and compiles anonymized health data from over 2.5 million dogs and cats annually. The 2013 Banfield State of Pet Health report emphasized the positive correlation between gonadectomy and longevity. Neutered male cats lived 62% longer than intact males, while spayed females lived 39% longer. For dogs, neutered males and spayed females lived 18% and 23% longer, respectively, compared to their intact counterparts. These findings suggest that sterilization not only contributes to population control but also provides measurable health and longevity benefits [44]. The report highlighted distinct trends by breed size. Small-breed dogs (e.g., Chihuahua, Dachshund) experienced the greatest increases in life expectancy. Large and giant breeds (e.g., Labrador Retrievers, Great Danes) showed more modest gains, often due to earlier onset of musculoskeletal and cardiac diseases [44]. However, interpretations should be made cautiously, since EMR-based longevity estimates—such as those derived from Banfield records—depend on the age at which pets are first presented to the clinic. This selection bias may lead to under- or over-estimation of true population lifespan, especially if animals are registered later in life or if recorded ages are estimates, thereby confounding the apparent longevity benefit attributed to sterilization [45].

1) Preventive care and chronic disease detection

Regular veterinary visits also play a crucial role in extending pet lifespans. Routine check-ups facilitate early diagnosis and management of chronic diseases, including CKD, endocrine disorders, and osteoarthritis [46]. Advancements in diagnostic tools, such as blood chemistry panels and imaging technologies, have enhanced the detection of these conditions. Moreover, increased owner awareness and the integration of EMRs have contributed to the routine consideration of conditions like osteoarthritis and cognitive dysfunction during geriatric wellness exams [47].

2) Limitations of EMR-based life expectancy estimates

Despite the scale and accessibility of EMR datasets, there are limitations to interpretation: 1) EMRs typically track ‘last recorded visit’ rather than confirmed mortality, which may overestimate lifespan if death is undocumented [27]. 2) The population using Banfield services may skew toward urban, insured, or more engaged owners, introducing socioeconomic bias [46]. 3) Breed registry and diagnostic coding inconsistencies may impact data granularity [27]. Efforts are underway to improve EMR-based lifespan estimation through natural language processing, integration with mortality registries, and predictive modeling using machine learning approaches [15,48].

3) Toward a global EMR-linked pet longevity surveillance model

Banfield’s EMR dataset remains one of the most comprehensive in veterinary medicine, offering a longitudinal view into evolving patterns of longevity, disease burden, and healthspan extension. Emerging platforms such as VetCompass (UK and Australia), Nationwide Pet Insurance EMRs, and Mars Petcare’s Pet Insight Project are expanding the landscape for EMR-based longevity analytics. Ultimately, coordinated EMR-based surveillance—analogous to human health record systems—could power precision aging research and guide clinical, nutritional, and behavioral interventions tailored to aging pets [15,48].

Insurance-based longevity data

Pet insurance companies have emerged as an important source of actuarial data for aging research in companion animals. Their databases contain detailed information on insured populations, including breed, age at policy inception, diagnoses, claims history, and mortality outcomes—offering a real-world window into longevity and disease burden [49]. Leading insurers such as Petsecure (Canada), Trupanion (USA), and Agria (Sweden) have published retrospective analyses based on large cohorts of insured dogs and cats. These datasets often span over a decade and enable age-standardized analysis by breed and health condition [50].

1) Survival trends in insured populations

Analyses of insurance databases show that insured pets generally live longer than non-insured populations—likely due to higher healthcare access, earlier diagnosis, and improved treatment compliance [49]. For example, Trupanion reported that dogs enrolled in insurance before age 2 lived on average 1.5 to 2.0 years longer than those insured later in life. A longitudinal study from Agria Insurance in Sweden found that neutered insured dogs had a median lifespan of 12.2 years, compared to 10.5 years in the general population. Similarly, insured cats lived nearly 2 years longer than shelter-derived averages [49].

2) Breed-specific mortality patterns

Insurance data facilitates breed-stratified mortality analysis. Large-scale actuarial reviews have identified lifespan variations by breed, sex, and size class [50]: 1) Toy and small breeds (e.g., Miniature Poodles, Yorkshire Terriers) consistently show the longest median lifespans, often exceeding 14 years [27]. 2) Brachycephalic breeds (e.g., Bulldogs, Pugs) demonstrate shorter lifespans and higher claim rates for respiratory and dermatologic diseases [51]. 3) Sighthounds (e.g., Greyhounds, Whippets) show a unique mortality pattern, with fewer claims overall but high cancer-specific mortality [52].

3) Limitations and future directions

While insurance databases are valuable, several caveats apply: 1) Selection bias: Owners who purchase insurance are more likely to be health-literate, affluent, and proactive [52]; 2) Policy duration bias: Shorter policies may under-report late-life conditions or mortality [52]; 3) Underreporting of euthanasia: Many death events, especially home euthanasia, may go unrecorded in insurance datasets [53]. Despite these challenges, insurance-linked longevity research is expanding. Machine learning models based on claim patterns are now being developed to predict healthspan trajectories and guide personalized risk stratification in aging pets [54].

Comparative perspectives: biological vs. chronological aging across species

1) Reducing late-life illness duration and healthspan comparisons

While dogs and cats share our environments and emotional bonds, their aging processes follow species-specific timelines [55]. Unlike laboratory rodents, companion animals age in heterogeneous environments, consume diverse diets, and develop spontaneous diseases, mirroring human conditions. This strengthens the external validity of veterinary aging studies [56]. In both humans and companion animals, the concept of reduces the time lived with illness near the end of life (a phenomenon often termed ‘compression of morbidity’) —delaying disease onset and reducing the duration of illness—is central to healthspan extension [57]. Studies in insured companion animals and well-managed senior dogs show that early interventions can delay disease onset and shorten the period of illness near the end of life, similar to patterns reported in humans with good healthcare access [56]. Emerging evidence suggests that cognitive decline, musculoskeletal degeneration, and metabolic syndromes follow similar patterns across species, though their onset varies with lifespan scaling [55].

2) Translational relevance of companion animal studies

The DAP and GRLS are unique in bridging human and animal geroscience. These cohorts have adopted methodologies from human longitudinal studies (e.g., Framingham, Nurses' Health Study), including environmental, nutritional, and behavioral data tracking [6]. DAP’s “Healthspan Metrics” initiative aligns canine assessments with human frailty indices, enabling cross-species comparison of functional aging trajectories [58]. Moreover, the TRIAD trial’s use of rapamycin in middle-aged dogs mirrors human anti-aging trials targeting mTOR, suggesting a shared mechanistic substrate [5].

3) Opportunities for comparative longevity innovation

Insights from companion animal aging research may inform human interventions, particularly in real-world testing of CR, senolytics, and personalized aging clocks [59,60]. Conversely, established human aging frameworks (e.g., Blue Zones, Mediterranean diet, regular exercise and epigenetic clocks) are now being adapted into veterinary care models. The One Health concept reinforces this comparative framework, promoting integration across species for mutual benefit in aging research and care [61].

Future research priorities in longevity surveillance

Despite increasing interest in pet longevity, current surveillance of lifespan and age-related disease trends in companion animals remain fragmented [62]. There is no centralized system akin to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Vital Statistics System for pets, making cross-cohort comparison and trend validation difficult [62]. Veterinary EMRs provide large datasets, but their utility is often constrained by inconsistent coding, variable data quality, and limited longitudinal linkage [63]. To address these limitations, standardized veterinary data ontologies and a pet-specific mortality registry—integrated across EMRs, insurance databases, and research cohorts—are urgently needed [62].

1) Underrepresentation of cats in longevity studies

Most longitudinal aging studies, including the DAP and the GRLS, focus exclusively on dogs [64]. There is a critical gap in feline aging research. Given the different metabolic profiles, disease susceptibilities, and aging phenotypes of cats, cat-specific longevity surveillance systems are essential [64]. Comparative studies in cats could reveal unique biological aging signatures and facilitate the development of feline-optimized geriatric screening protocols, interventions, and dietary strategies [65,66].

2) Ethical and analytical challenges

Unlike human mortality tracking, pet lifespan data often lack precise cause-of-death reporting [62]. Euthanasia decisions—often based on quality-of-life metrics—complicate mortality interpretation. Thus, future surveillance efforts must incorporate standardized euthanasia coding and context-sensitive outcome definitions [67]. Ethical considerations also arise in applying predictive analytics. Algorithms designed to forecast lifespan or frailty risk must be transparent, validated, and avoid misclassification that could bias treatment or end-of-life decisions [68].

3) Advancing analytical tools and biomarkers

Future longevity surveillance will be enhanced by integrating molecular aging biomarkers (e.g., DNA methylation clocks, telomere length, p16INK4a), wearable-derived metrics (activity, gait, sleep), and owner-reported quality-of-life indices into health records [69]. AI-driven modeling can synthesize this multimodal data to build individualized aging trajectories, detect early deviation from healthy baselines, and identify sentinel signs of decline [70]. Standardized frailty indices and healthspan scoring tools are needed for routine clinical use—paralleling human instruments like the Clinical Frailty Scale or SF-36 [71].

4) Global collaboration and open science

Collaborative databases such as VetCompass, PetSAGE, and the DAP’s Terra portal represent promising models for open-access veterinary geroscience research [72]. Global integration of EMR systems and cross-institutional harmonization of data fields will enable large-scale meta-analyses, increasing statistical power and reducing regional bias [73,74]. Veterinary colleges, insurers, and public health agencies must partner to create robust infrastructure for life-course surveillance in pets [75].

Section 2: Anti-aging strategies in companion animals

Veterinary application of anti-aging concepts: preventive approaches and delaying disease expression

Aging in companion animals is no longer regarded as a passive, unmodifiable process [1]. In veterinary medicine, anti-aging strategies are increasingly framed not as attempts to prevent aging itself, but to extend healthspan [25,76]. Traditionally, veterinary medicine has focused on chronological aging, defining life stages by arbitrary age thresholds [77]. However, emerging evidence supports a biological aging model, where functional and molecular indicators—such as immune dysregulation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cognitive decline—precede overt clinical disease [78,79]. Recognizing this distinction allows for more timely and proactive medical interventions [25]. Modern anti-aging veterinary approaches embrace a preventive paradigm: rather than merely treating illness, the goal is to delay its onset or mitigate its severity by targeting aging-associated mechanisms before clinical signs appear [77]. This includes addressing subclinical inflammation ('inflammaging'), maintaining muscle mass to prevent frailty, preserving cognitive function, and sustaining immunological resilience [25]. Anti-aging in this context is not an abstract ideal—it represents an actionable, integrative approach to functional aging management in clinical practice.

1) Extending healthspan over lifespan

While increased lifespan is often viewed as a success, it must be interpreted alongside healthspan. Prolonging life without maintaining physiological function can lead to extended periods of disability and reduced quality of life [1]. Veterinary anti-aging frameworks aim to optimize both quality and quantity of life, acknowledging that the last third of an animal’s life often sees the greatest disease burden if proactive care is not implemented.

2) Early intervention and predictive geriatric medicine

Predictive and preventive strategies are central to veterinary anti-aging medicine. Routine screening of blood markers, nutritional status, cognitive function, and mobility should begin during the pre-senior stage, particularly in high-risk breeds. Integration of tools such as epigenetic clocks, telomere length assays, metabolomics, and body composition analysis may allow for individualized aging risk profiles in the near future. By intervening before irreversible pathology sets in, clinicians can redirect the aging trajectory and shorten the period of illness near the end of life. into a shorter end-of-life window [1].

3) Practical clinical integration and toward standardized guidelines

By positioning anti-aging as a mainstream framework in veterinary medicine, we can shift from reactive disease control to proactive healthspan extension in senior dogs and cats [78]. In clinical settings, anti-aging medicine can be operationalized through: annual or biannual senior health screenings; nutritional optimization and personalized feeding plans; routine dental care and early orthopedic evaluation; behavioral assessments for cognitive and emotional decline; and client education emphasizing lifestyle factors and proactive aging care [23]. Protecting mobility, minimizing stress, and preserving lean mass are foundational anti-aging principles already within the veterinarian’s toolkit [23]. A growing body of translational research from human geroscience and canine aging studies highlights the urgent need to codify veterinary geriatric standards that align with anti-aging goals [6]. Professional bodies will need to develop clinical guidelines that incorporate early risk detection, multimodal preventive care, and validated tools for aging assessment [23].

Nutritional modulation of aging in companion animals

1) Nutrition as a modifiable factor in aging

Nutrition is a key, modifiable determinant of aging in humans and companion animals [77]. Geroscience research shows that CR, optimized macronutrient balance—especially protein—and bioactive compounds can influence molecular hallmarks of aging and extend healthspan [80]. In veterinary medicine, nutrition serves as both a preventive and therapeutic approach to slow functional decline and reduce age-related disease burden [77].

2) CR and dietary strategies

CR, defined as reduced calorie intake without malnutrition, is a well-established intervention prolonging lifespan from yeast to primates [81]. Its relevance is growing in dogs and cats, where obesity and metabolic syndromes are common [82]. CR suppresses insulin/IGF-1 signaling, downregulates mTOR, activates sirtuins and AMPK, enhancing autophagy, mitochondrial function, and oxidative stress resistance [3,83], while reducing “inflammaging” and insulin resistance [84].

3) Evidence from canine CR studies

In a 14-year study, Labrador Retrievers fed 25% fewer calories lived nearly 2 years longer, with delayed onset of osteoarthritis and cancer [85]. They maintained lower body fat, better insulin sensitivity, and less inflammation [86]. Implementation must consider timing, degree, and nutrient composition [2].

4) CR and intermittent fasting

CR without malnutrition has been shown to increase lifespan and delay disease onset in multiple species, including dogs [85]. In the landmark Purina study, Labrador Retrievers fed 25% fewer calories than their littermates lived, on average, 1.8 years longer than their non-calorie restricted littermates on the same diet, and exhibited delayed onset of osteoarthritis and other chronic diseases [85]. Mechanistically, CR downregulates mTOR signaling, enhances autophagy, reduces oxidative damage, and improves insulin sensitivity—all of which contribute to cellular resilience and extended healthspan [87]. Intermittent fasting protocols (e.g., time-restricted feeding or 5:2 approaches) are also being explored in dogs and cats, with preliminary evidence suggesting metabolic and anti-inflammatory benefits [88]. The "5:2" approach typically refers to a regimen where normal caloric intake is maintained for five days of the week, while significant CR (e.g., 25%–30% of usual intake) is applied on the remaining two non-consecutive days. However, adaptation must consider species-specific feeding behavior, protein turnover, and the risk of sarcopenia, especially in aging cats [2].

5) CR-mimicking dietary strategies

Full CR is difficult to implement in clinical practice due to concerns about nutrient adequacy, owner compliance, and the potential for muscle loss in older animals [2]. As such, veterinary nutrition has turned to CR-mimicking diets, such as: Moderate protein, low glycemic-index carbohydrates, and controlled fat for metabolic control; Intermittent fasting or time-restricted feeding to replicate metabolic cycles seen in CR; Nutrient-dense, lower-calorie diets with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory support [89]. These strategies aim to reproduce the molecular benefits of CR without the drawbacks of chronic caloric deprivation [83].

6) Preventive benefits for aging-associated diseases

CR and its mimetics show promise in delaying or mitigating numerous aging-related conditions. These include: osteoarthritis, by reducing inflammatory load and preserving lean mass; diabetes mellitus, by enhancing insulin sensitivity; CKD, through modulation of phosphorus intake and oxidative stress; cognitive decline, via improvements in mitochondrial health and neuroinflammation suppression [84]. In cats, where obesity and hyperthyroidism are both prevalent (though not necessarily concurrent), early caloric control may help reduce the overall endocrine burden, particularly by mitigating obesity—a known risk factor for several age-related disorders [2]. CR is not intended as a direct intervention for hyperthyroidism itself, but rather as a preventive strategy against obesity and metabolic strain that may exacerbate age-related endocrine dysregulation.

7) Clinical application and limitations

In geriatric patients, care must be taken to avoid frailty, muscle wasting, or hypoalbuminemia. CR is best employed as a preventive strategy in middle age, with geriatric regimens focusing on nutrient-rich but calorie-moderate formulations [90]. Patient selection, regular body condition scoring and muscle condition scoring (MCS), and individual metabolic assessment are essential for safe CR implementation. Moreover, caregiver education is vital—misunderstanding CR as starvation or underfeeding can lead to poor compliance. Collaborative planning with pet owners ensures long-term adherence and effective outcomes.

8) Future directions: personalized restriction models

Advances in metabolomics, nutrigenomics, and epigenetic clocks may allow for tailored CR protocols in the future, matching dietary restriction intensity to individual aging phenotypes [91]. Veterinary trials exploring CR mimetics (e.g., resveratrol, rapamycin, NAD+ precursors) are also under way, potentially offering pharmacological alternatives to strict dietary control [92].

Macronutrient profiles and aging pathways

The protein-to-carbohydrate ratio influences longevity pathways, notably the insulin/IGF-1 axis [93]. In rodents, low-protein, moderate-carbohydrate diets extended lifespan and reduced chronic disease [93]. While dogs and cats are obligate carnivores or facultative omnivores, similar metabolic effects may arise from adjusted macronutrient profiles [2]. In aging pets, high-quality protein with optimal leucine supports muscle maintenance, while controlled fat and carbohydrate help prevent obesity, dyslipidemia, and diabetes [2].

1) Dietary fiber and gut microbiota

Dietary fibers—particularly fermentable fibers like inulin or beet pulp—also play a role by modulating the gut microbiota and supporting short-chain fatty acid production, which impacts gut health, immunity, and inflammation [94].

2) Geroprotective nutrients and nutraceuticals

Nutrients with anti-aging effects now incorporated into senior pet diets include: omega-3s (eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA], docosa hexaenoic acid [DHA]) for reducing cognitive decline and inflammation [95]; L-carnitine and taurine for mitochondrial function, especially in feline cardiac aging [2]; coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) and α-lipoic acid as mitochondrial antioxidants [96]; resveratrol, polyphenols, and flavonoids for activating SIRT1/Nrf2 pathways [97]; and vitamins D and K2 for musculoskeletal and vascular health [98]. These act on oxidative stress, senescence, epigenetic regulation, and telomere maintenance.

3) Individualized nutrition based on biomarkers

Nutrition remains one of the most practical, evidence-based tools to extend healthspan [2,99]. Precision feeding guided by biomarkers—such as MCS, bioimpedance analysis, and microbiota profiling—can tailor nutrient allocation and calories for each senior pet [2]. Diets may be customized for breed size, renal function, joint status, or cognition, such as phosphorus restriction for CKD or medium chain triglyceride enrichment for cognitive health [99,100].

4) Translational insights

Human dietary models like the Mediterranean, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), and Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay diets—rich in plant antioxidants, omega-3s, and low glycemic load—parallel senior pet diets targeting frailty, cognitive decline, and cardiovascular aging [101,102,103]. Longevity-focused pet nutrition brands increasingly incorporate these principles to address aging pathways, microbiome balance, and immunometabolic health [103].

Nutritional supplements: antioxidants, omega-3, and mitochondrial support compounds antioxidants and cellular defense

Aging in dogs and cats involves oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, mitochondrial decline, and lipid dysregulation, making targeted nutraceuticals key to supporting cellular health [103,104]. Oxidative stress accelerates senescence, DNA damage, and protein oxidation [103]. Major antioxidants—vitamin E, vitamin C, selenium, CoQ10, and alpha-lipoic acid—act synergistically to neutralize free radicals and protect membranes [105]. Vitamin E reduces lipid peroxidation; vitamin C recycles vitamin E and boosts immunity; selenium supports glutathione peroxidase activity; CoQ10 aids mitochondrial electron transport; and alpha-lipoic acid regenerates antioxidants and chelates metals. Combined antioxidant therapy can reduce cognitive decline and support cardiovascular and renal health [106]. Omega-3 fatty acids, such as long-chain omega-3s (EPA, DHA) modulate inflammation, enhance membrane fluidity, and support neuronal signaling [107]. Benefits include improved cognition and reduced β-amyloid in cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) [108,109,110,111,112], reduced proteinuria in CKD [113], decreased cartilage inflammation in osteoarthritis [114], and cardiovascular protection [115]. DHA-rich diets are particularly valuable for senior cats with underdiagnosed cognitive decline [108].

1) Clinical applications in geriatric pets

Numerous studies support the use of targeted nutraceuticals in aging dogs and cats. CDS: antioxidant blends (vitamin E/C, selenium, CoQ10) and DHA enhance memory and spatial awareness [106]. CKD: omega-3s and mitochondrial protectants help maintain glomerular filtration rate and reduce inflammatory cytokines [113]. Osteoarthritis and sarcopenia: Omega-3s and creatine help preserve muscle mass and joint integrity [114]. Combination therapies may produce additive benefits, but interactions and dosage must be carefully managed.

2) Safety, integration future directions in clinical nutrition

While generally safe, supplements should be tailored to patient condition, disease status, and concurrent medications [116]. Over-supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins or trace minerals can be harmful [117]. Monitoring clinical markers and conducting baseline screening (e.g., blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, liver enzymes) is recommended before initiating long-term supplementation [118]. Formulations that combine multiple agents (e.g., antioxidant + omega-3 + CoQ10) are available commercially and offer convenience, but their efficacy should be evaluated case-by-case [119]. As metabolomic profiling and nutrigenomics evolve, personalized supplementation protocols may be developed for individual aging pets [120]. Research into senolytic nutraceuticals, mitochondrial activators, and neuroprotective agents in companion species is ongoing [121]. Future studies should focus on dose optimization, long-term outcomes, and breed-specific responses to ensure safe and effective integration of these interventions into geriatric care plans [122].

Pharmacologic and molecular anti-aging strategies in dogs and cats

1) Emergence of pharmacologic approaches in geroscience

While lifestyle interventions such as nutrition and physical activity are foundational to healthspan extension, recent advances in molecular geroscience have opened new pharmacologic avenues to directly target the biological mechanisms of aging [6,123]. In both human and veterinary medicine, mTOR inhibitors, senolytics, and metabolic modulators are being investigated for their ability to delay age-related diseases and enhance longevity [2]. These strategies aim to modulate intracellular signaling, improve mitochondrial function, suppress inflammation, and eliminate senescent cells—offering a paradigm shift from disease treatment to aging prevention [3].

Exercise and rehabilitation: muscle maintenance, joint health, and cardiovascular preservation

In aging dogs and cats, inactivity accelerates decline, contributing to sarcopenia, joint stiffness, and reduced cardiovascular fitness [124]. Sarcopenia, marked by progressive loss of muscle mass and strength, impairs mobility, thermoregulation, insulin sensitivity, and increases fall risk [125]. In cats, reluctance to jump may signal early neuromuscular decline.

Regular, low-impact exercise (e.g., walking, swimming) improves cardiovascular output, muscle oxygenation, insulin sensitivity, immune function, and mitochondrial activity, while reducing inflammation and resting heart rate [126,127]. It also supports joint lubrication, cartilage perfusion, and proprioception, aiding osteoarthritis management [128].

Veterinary rehabilitation—using underwater treadmill [129,130], passive range of motion [131], therapeutic laser/ultrasound [132], and neuromuscular electrical stimulation [133]—improves mobility, strength, and independence. Programs should be individualized by age, breed, disease, and baseline fitness, with gradual intensity, multimodal integration, and monitoring for intolerance in animals with cardiac or respiratory disease [132,133]. In cats, interactive play, climbing structures, and food puzzles promote safe movement [134].

Exercise must be cautious in cases of advanced heart failure, severe osteoarthritis, or neurologic deficits [131], with pre-program screening (cardiac, orthopedic, and laboratory exams) recommended [135]. Combining exercise with targeted nutrition (high protein, BCAA, omega-3), antioxidants, and cognitive stimulation yields synergistic benefits, partly via myokines such as irisin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects [136,137]. Integrating physical, nutritional, behavioral, and owner-guided care represents a future standard for geriatric veterinary practice [135].

Physical and cognitive interventions in aging dogs and cats

Physical activity and cognitive stimulation are low-risk, high-impact strategies for preserving function and quality of life in aging pets [138,139]. They address sarcopenia, osteoarthritis, and cognitive dysfunction, complementing pharmacologic and nutritional therapies [139,140]. Regular, controlled exercise (e.g., leash walks, hydrotherapy, low-impact play) supports musculoskeletal integrity, cardiovascular health, and metabolic flexibility without worsening pain or fatigue [138,139,140]. Rehabilitation options such as underwater treadmill, ultrasound, and laser therapy improve mobility in geriatric patients [140].

1) Cognitive enrichment and neuroplasticity

CDS is common in elderly pets, causing disorientation, altered interactions, and sleep disturbances [25]. Cognitive enrichment—through interactive toys, training, scent games, and environmental challenges—promotes neuroplasticity and delays decline [25,141]. Structured engagement can be as important as diet or medication for cognitive health [141].

2) Human-animal bond and psychosocial health

Social interaction, grooming, and consistent attention reduce stress, anxiety, and behavioral deterioration in senior pets [25]. Owners should adapt interaction to sensory and mobility changes [25].

3) Integrative therapies

Complementary approaches such as acupuncture, massage, stretching, and balance training enhance circulation, reduce pain, and improve proprioception while strengthening the caregiver-pet bond [140]. Individualized plans should include regular reassessment using pain scores, gait analysis, and cognitive checklists [140]. Physical and cognitive interventions, combined with nutrition and pharmacology, form a multimodal strategy to delay frailty, preserve independence, and improve quality of life [138].

Caregiver engagement and communication in geriatric veterinary care

1) Caregivers as essential partners in geriatric pet care

In geriatric veterinary medicine, caregivers are active participants in health monitoring, decision-making, and daily care [142]. Aging pets often need complex routines for medication, nutrition, mobility, and behavior, making caregiver involvement vital [143]. Caring for such pets can be emotionally and physically taxing, with owners facing anticipatory grief, financial strain, and burnout, especially with progressive conditions like cognitive decline or incontinence [144,145,146]. Veterinarians should recognize caregiver fatigue and respond with empathy, validation, and practical solutions [147].

2) Communication, education, and shared decision-making

Open, compassionate communication fosters trust and realistic expectations [148]. Shared decision-making should integrate owner values, lifestyle, and emotional readiness with clinical evidence [149]. Decision aids, quality-of-life scales, and written care plans improve goal alignment and adherence [150]. Educating caregivers on aging physiology, treatment options, and home monitoring builds confidence and engagement [150]. Resources such as workshops, handouts, videos, and digital platforms make information accessible [151], enabling owners to detect subtle changes and advocate for their pet’s wellbeing [152].

3) Continuity of care and end-of-life compassion

Longitudinal care—through regular wellness exams, telehealth follow-ups, and consistent staff—strengthens bonds and ensures timely intervention [153,154]. Cultural awareness and emotional intelligence are essential in end-of-life discussions, as families hold diverse beliefs about aging, death, and medical intervention [155]. Compassionate dialogue on palliative care, hospice, and euthanasia preserves dignity and reduces caregiver distress [156,157]. Caregiver engagement is both clinical and ethical [158]; prioritizing empathy, communication, and education supports dignity, compassion, and shared purpose in a pet’s final life stages [147].

Integrative multimodal approaches for aging dogs and cats

Aging is a multifactorial process affecting nearly all physiological systems, and no single intervention can address every aspect of decline [25]. Integrative multimodal approaches—combining nutrition, pharmacology, physical therapy, cognitive enrichment, and complementary medicine—target aging through multiple pathways [159,160], reflecting the complexity of frailty, cognitive dysfunction, chronic pain, and immune senescence [161].

These strategies often produce synergistic effects, where combined outcomes exceed the sum of individual treatments [162]. For example, dietary antioxidants may reduce neuroinflammation, while cognitive training enhances synaptic plasticity, together preserving cognitive health more effectively [146]. Similarly, physical rehabilitation may boost mitochondrial function, improving responsiveness to nutritional or pharmacologic mitochondrial protectants [140]. Care must be tailored to the patient’s clinical phenotype, comorbidities, and goals, guided by comprehensive geriatric assessments including mobility, cognition, pain, nutrition, and caregiver capacity [162].

1) Practical implementation in clinical settings

In practice, multimodal care may include senior diets rich in omega-3 and antioxidants, low-dose nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or joint supplements, hydrotherapy, cognitive games, and weekly acupuncture or massage [159]. Client education and adherence are critical—veterinarians should set achievable goals, offer ongoing support, and use tools like mobile apps or caregiver diaries to enhance compliance [162]. Collaboration among veterinarians, technicians, rehabilitation specialists, nutritionists, and owners, with clear roles and shared plans, ensures consistency [159].

2) Challenges and future directions

Implementation barriers include cost, time, limited rehabilitation access, and variable owner engagement [159]. Growing demand for aging care is fostering innovations in telemedicine, home-based programs, and integrative platforms [159]. Future tools may include AI-assisted planning, predictive analytics, and remote monitoring to enable personalized, evidence-based care [159]. Multimodal strategies address biological, behavioral, and emotional dimensions of aging, helping preserve vitality, independence, and comfort in senior pets [159].

DISCUSSION

Advances in preventive care, nutrition, and veterinary specialization have extended companion animal lifespans, shifting geriatric practice toward proactive, healthspan-focused care. Geroscience targets upstream mechanisms—such as mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammaging, and cellular senescence—that drive chronic disease. Cohort studies, including the DAP, the GRLS, and EMR or insurance datasets, show how breed, size, lifestyle, and environment influence longevity, while identifying modifiable risks. Gaps remain in feline research and the use of standardized aging biomarkers.

Evidence supports nutritional optimization, CR and mimetics, targeted nutraceuticals, pharmacologic agents, and structured physical and cognitive enrichment to delay frailty and preserve function. Yet, application in practice is inconsistent, limited by guideline availability, owner compliance, and long-term outcome data. Progress requires validated geriatric assessment tools, biomarker-driven risk profiling, coordinated longevity surveillance, and strong caregiver engagement. Integrating veterinary geroscience within a One Health framework can enhance precision care, inform human aging research, and reframe aging as a modifiable process—extending both lifespan and the period of vitality in senior pets.