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. 2025 Jun 6;125(11):3259–3272. doi: 10.1007/s00421-025-05820-3

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© The Author(s) 2025

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Muscular strength and power tests differences in mean, peak and time to reach peak velocity among experimental conditions. Mean velocity (V_mean, A), peak velocity (V_peak, B) and time to reach V_peak (C). In the three figures, bench press exercise values are illustrated in the left side, while back squat exercise values are illustrated in the right side. MPLA morning trial ingesting placebo, MCAF morning trial ingesting caffeine, EPLA evening trial ingesting placebo, ECAF evening trial ingesting caffeine. *P < 0.05 MCAF compared to MPLA; #P < 0.05 ECAF compared to EPLA; θ P < 0.05 EPLA compared to MPLA