TABLE 1.

Comparison of various properties of DMSCs (Guanlin et al., 2021; Linglu et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2020; Sabbagh et al., 2020; Al-Qadhi et al., 2021; Deng et al., 2024; Kotova et al., 2021; Nowwarote et al., 2020; Abe et al., 2022).

Cellular type	Proliferation capacity	Differentiation potential	Immune regulation	Cell markers
DPSCs	The proliferation rate is similar to that of PDLSCs but lower than that of DFPCs. The proliferation capacity and osteoinductive ability are higher than those of DPSCs	Endothelial cells, osteoblasts, adipocytes, chondroprogenitor cells, hepatocytes and cardiomyocytes have neurogenic differentiation potential. Among them, the osteogenic differentiation ability is greater than that of DFPCs	It has immunomodulatory properties, can inhibit T cell proliferation, trigger M2 macrophage polarization, and suppress inflammation, etc.	Stro-1, CD49f, CD29, CD44、CD105, CD90
SHEDs	The proliferation rate is similar to that of PDLSCs but lower than that of DFPCs. The proliferation capacity and osteoinductive ability are higher than those of DPSCs	Osteocytes, chondrocytes, adipocytes, odontoblasts, endothelial cells and hepatocytes Unique dental tissue and osteoinductive ability* Can be used as a neuroprotective agent*	/	CD73, CD90, CD105 CD146
PDLSCs	/	The differentiation potential of osteocytes, endothelial cells, cardiomyocytes, islet-like cells and retinal ganglion-like cells It can form typical cementum and periodontal ligament-like structures	/	Stro-1, CD146, CD29, CD44, CD106
GMSCs	Greater than PDLSCs, and the degree of senescence after continuous passage in vitro culture is less than that of PDLSCs. Compared with DPSCs and PDLSCs, it has a unique ability to automatically differentiate into gingiva in vivo	Neurogenic differentiation, adipocytes, chondrocytes and endothelial cells	/	CD13, CD29, CD44, CD54, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD166, Stro-1

Unique dental tissue and bone induction ability*: Capable of differentiating into odontoblasts and forming dentin-like or pulp-like tissues, rather than complete dentin-pulp-like complexes. In vivo, it recruits host osteoblasts to induce new bone formation, unlike in vitro where it differentiates into osteoblasts.

Can act as a neuroprotective agent*: Promotes neural function recovery through paracrine action and inhibits the formation of glial scars after spinal cord contusion.

Unique ability to automatically differentiate into gingiva in vivo*: Transplantation forms connective-like tissue expressing collagen I, a capability not possessed by DPSCs, and PDLSCs.

DPSCs, Dental pulp stem cells; SHEDs, Stem cells populations from human exfoliated deciduous teeth; PDLSCs, Periodontal ligament stem cells; GMSCs, Gingival mesenchymal stem cells; DFPCs, Dental follicle progenitor cells.