Understanding the Relevance of Psychopathological Features in Pets-Owner Relationship: State of the Art and Future Directions – A Narrative Review

Abstract

Objective

Increasing attention on the correlation between pet-ownership and mental health or well-being in general population and those affected by psychiatric and cognitive disorders is currently arising. It has been proposed that emotional attachment to pets moderates the relationship between pet-ownership and mental health. Most data highlight the benefits that pet-owner relationships may lead to the individual. Notwithstanding, there are evidence of presence of some psychological features in pets’ owners that may belong to several psychopathological spectra. These features may have important implication for individual well-being, and, in the pet relationship which tends to compensate owners’ potential abnormal traits. However, the presence of abnormal traits may, in turn predispose the individual to the worsening of psychopathological features in stressful circumstances, especially when the relationship with the animal is hampered. This review aims to highlight relevant data from the literature on this issue and advance hypotheses for future research and clinical implications.

Method

A narrative review of the available literature on the topic was carried in three main databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science), between September 2024 and December 2024, using the following string: ((pet attachment) OR (pet owner relationship) OR (pet owner personality) AND/OR (mental health) AND/OR (quality of life) AND/OR (autism) AND/OR (separation anxiety)).

Results

Personality traits, such as neuroticism, empathy, and consciousness play in shaping the bond between pets and their owners. While traits like empathy often enhance emotional bonding and quality of life, the literature also acknowledge that they may overlap with psychological distress or disorders, complicating the interpretation of these relationship. Interestingly, even traits typically considered negative such as narcissism, may manifest positively in pet care, further complicating the dynamics of pet attachment. While pet provide emotional security, especially for individuals with anxiety disorder or neuroatypical traits, excessive attachment can introduce emotional vulnerabilities and worsen psychological issue.

Conclusions

This review call for future research to better understand the psychological implications of pet attachment and suggest potential clinical applications for fostering healthy bonds and improving mental health well-being.

Introduction

In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the correlation between pet ownership and better mental health or greater well-being in both the general population and those affected by physical and mental disorders (Wells, 2009). It has been suggested that pets, dogs in particular, may influence mental well-being by moderating the human physiological response to stress, specifically through attenuation and regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and heart rate response to stress factors (Allen et al., 2002; Fiocco & Hunse, 2017; Polheber & Matchock, 2013). Some authors also suggested that dogs' ability to act as catalysts for social interactions could benefit human psychosocial well-being (McNicholas & Collis, 2000).

However, the available literature only sometimes provides homogeneous and concordant results. For example, while some authors have suggested that pet companionship was associated with fewer feelings of loneliness and depression (Stanley et al., 2013), others have found null or adverse effects of pet ownership on physical and mental health (Herzog, 2011). Considering these divergent findings, it has been proposed that emotional attachment to pets —defined as a close, affectionate bond between owner and pet— moderates the relationship between pet ownership and mental health (Islam & Towell, 2013). In this review, two distinct meanings are adopted: first, "attachment" as derived from Attachment Theory, originally formulated by John Bowlby (1969), which refers to the biologically rooted system driving infants to seek proximity to caregivers for survival and emotional regulation; and second, a broader and more colloquial use of “emotional attachment,” referring to the affectionate, non-clinical emotional bonds that people form with their pets. While Attachment Theory has been extensively applied to interpersonal relationships—including romantic and parental bonds—it has more recently been extended to human-animal relationships (Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011), offering a theoretical framework to understand the nature and quality of pet-owner bonds. However, throughout this review, we specify when references pertain to Bowlby’s theoretical framework or to the general emotional bond with pets. In the psychopathological field, different attachment patterns represent elements of vulnerability or resilience towards many psychiatric disorders. In particular, in the field of human relationships and especially parental ones, it has been reported that insecure attachment may be considered a predisposing factor towards greater vulnerability to stress, which, in turn, can increase the risk of developing psychiatric symptoms and impair the ability to react to stressful life events, contemporarily reducing support seeking (Alonso et al., 2018; Kobak & Bosmans, 2019; Luyten & Fonagy, 2021). Available studies suggest that humans are often strongly attached to their pets (Brooks et al., 2018; Smolkovic et al., 2012) and they sometimes report an even greater attachment to pets than to human family members (Beck & Madresh, 2008). Therefore, many authors have focused on the relationship between emotional attachment to pets (not to be confused with attachment patterns derived from Attachment Theory) and mental health, hypothesizing that a strong emotional attachment to them would be associated with better mental health. However, current evidence does not confirm this hypothesis: while some studies have found a positive relationship between strong emotional attachment to pets and mental health (Barker, 1999; Cohen, 2002; Goldmeier, 1986; Mahalski et al., 1988), others failed to highlight this association report (Lewis et al., 2009; Quinn, 2005; Stallones et al., 1990; Winefield et al., 2008), and further ones have even reported a negative outcome due to emotional attachment to pets (Keil & Barba, 1995; Lass-Hennemann et al., 2020; Miltiades & Shearer, 2011; Peacock et al., 2012; Smolkovic et al., 2012), as a stronger bond with one's pet was linked to poorer mental health.

In light of these mixed findings, a growing body of research has examined how both emotional attachment to pets and theoretically derived attachment patterns might jointly or independently contribute to psychopathological vulnerability. In particular, studies highlighted how a stronger emotional attachment to pets is sometimes associated with childhood trauma (especially interpersonal traumatic experiences) and high levels of dissociation (Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010; Brown & Katcher, 1997, 2001). Other studies assessing human social support and emotional attachment to pets found that pet owners who are highly attached to their pets report lower levels of human social support (Stallones et al., 1990; Stammbach & Turner, 1999). Furthermore, researches evaluating pet attachment, mental health, and human social support in the same sample highlighted that pet owners with low levels of social support and strong emotional attachment to pets reported higher scores of loneliness and depression (Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010; Garrity et al., 1989; Matijczak et al., 2020).

Interestingly, in such framework, the growing phenomenon of anthropomorphization of companion animals can easily find its place. The natural history narrative tries to portray the natural kingdom in very human terms where animals are believed to behave in a moral way; in fact, anthropomorphism refers to the tendency to attribute human forms, behaviors and emotions to non-human animals or objects (Mota-Rojas et al., 2021). Importantly, this anthropomorphic process seems automatic (Mota-Rojas et al., 2021) and, while some of these practices can be beneficial to the pet owners, others can be very detrimental for the pet and the owner himself. Dangerous tendencies related to aesthetic practices associated with human concepts of fashion to pets -application of cosmetics, clothing, dietary choices leading to malnutrition or obesity, lack of movement resulting in muscular atrophy- (Sabanci & Ocal, 2018; Van Herwijnen et al., 2020) are dramatically increasing, negatively affecting the welfare of pets because their innate and distinct biological needs are not taken into consideration.

It is not yet clear the link between attachment to humans and emotional attachment to pets. One of the hypotheses reported in the scientific literature conceptualized the close emotional bond with pets as a compensatory attachment strategy for people who were unable to establish proper relationships with other figures during childhood or adolescence. The lack of proper relationship may be due to several causes, ranging from environmental factors such as childhood trauma to the presence of deficits in socio-emotional reciprocity and verbal or non-verbal communication skills, typical also of subjects with marked autistic traits (Barcelos et al., 2021; Dollion et al., 2024). Furthermore, based on evidence that provided support for a more insecure and anxious attachment to humans related to a stronger emotional attachment to pets, some authors hypothesized that the relationship between emotional attachment to pets and mental health could be explained for their shared variance with attachment to humans (Lass-Hennemann et al., 2022).

In this framework, the hypothesis that a stronger emotional attachment to pets may be associated with a higher mental health burden has been proposed. Moreover, some studies have reported high levels of anticipatory anxiety in dog owners, intended as concern about something negative that could happen in the future, which in turn further increases the anxiety perceived in the current moment (Schubert et al., 2020). It has in fact been reported that owners often worry about what could happen to their dog or what would happen to the dog if the owner died first, and vice versa, hinting a connection with high levels of "anticipatory grief" about how they could cope with the loss of their dog (Spitznagel et al., 2021).

The investigation into the role of pets and attachment to them in promoting human health and well-being or in representing factors of psychopathological vulnerability appeared particularly relevant during the recent COVID-19 pandemic which coincided with a record demand for pet adoptions (Ho et al., 2021), aimed in part at making up for the gaps relating to social and interpersonal relationships due to the successive lockdown periods.

In this framework, our primary aim was to to review and synthesize current literature on the associations between different types of pet attachment—both emotional and attachment-theory informed—and owners’ personality traits and quality of life. This includes an evaluation of how personality dimensions such as neuroticism, empathy, and conscientiousness interact with pet bonding. Secondarily, we also aimed to explore the influence of pet attachment on emotional distress, post-traumatic growth, and possible psychopathological vulnerabilities, with a specific focus on certain populations (e.g., individuals with neuroatypical traits or psychiatric disorders).

For the purpose, we carried a literature search using the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science, between September 2024 and December 2024, using the following string: ((pet attachment) OR (pet owner relationship) OR (pet owner personality) AND/ OR (mental health) AND/OR (quality of life) AND/OR (autism) AND/OR (separation anxiety)), and including paper published in the last 45 years.

Building on the reviewed empirical evidence, we also propose a conceptual extension, specifically exploring the hypothesis that certain psychopathological features (e.g., insecure attachment, social anxiety, dissociation) may not only influence the quality of pet attachment but may also serve as underlying motivational factors in the decision to seek pet companionship. While the existing literature does not provide definitive causal evidence, the convergence of findings suggests the plausibility of this model.

Pet attachment and owner personality

In recent years, various studies have focused on the evaluation of the relationship between the pet-pet owner attachment model and the owner's personality, investigating what may come from it as an impact on the owner's life.

In particular, many studies focused on empathy and pet-owner attachment. In this framework, while empathy is not a core personality trait in itself, it is widely recognized in psychology as a trait-like disposition—a stable part of an individual's personality that influences social and emotional functioning. A recent study carried by Sung and Han (2023), tried to investigate the impact of empathy on the relationship between dog-owner attachment and the owner's quality of life. A survey was conducted on 263 Korean dog owners (F=63.1%; M=36.9%). The aim was to collect data regarding three main variables: empathy, owner's quality of life and attachment to the dog. For the investigation, 88 questions were used, resulting from the union of several psychometric scales: in addition to the demographic section, 23 questions belonged to the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), 28 questions belonged to the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and 26 to the World Health Organization Quality of Life-Bref (WHOQOL-BREF). The findings showed a partial mediation impact of empathy on the relationship between human attachment and quality of life, as well as strong correlations between human empathy, quality of life, and attachment to dogs. The findings also showed that the association between general attachment and quality of life was partially mediated by a dual-mediation effect of cognitive and affective empathy, highlighting the significance of empathy in this relationship while also admitting the existence of other contributing elements. At the same time, the cognitive aspect of empathy was reported to not correlate with the level of owners' quality of life. In light of those results, the authors suggested that a strong attachment and empathy towards dogs would greatly increase the quality of life of both the owner and the dog (Sung & Han, 2023). Empathy was also the focus of another study from Giacomin et al. (2023), in which it was investigated whether people-centered empathy and animal-centered empathy could be considered substantially similar. Indeed, according to the authors, the fact that a subject may have difficulty showing empathy towards humans does not necessarily imply a lack of empathy towards animals. The study involved 259 university students (F=205; M=73; missing=6; mean age: 21.46±5.61years) who were pet owners, assessed for three components of narcissistic traits: agentic extraversion, antagonism and narcissistic neuroticism, as well as for empathy towards animals and humans, attitude towards animals and attachment to their pets. For the purpose of the study, the authors used various psychometrics scales including the Narcissistic Personality Inventory-16 for the evaluation of narcissistic aspects, the Admiration subscale of the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and the Questionnaire for Measures of Emotional Empathy (QMEE) for the evaluation human-centered empathy, the Animal Empathy Scale (AES) for the assessment of animal-centered empathy, and the Pet Attachment and Life Impacts Scale (PALS) and the Animal Attitude Scale (AAS) for the investigation of the attitude and attachment towards animals. Results showed that while Agentic extraversion was unrelated to both human- and animal-centered empathy, Antagonism was instead related to less empathy for both humans and animals, as well as more negative attitudes towards animals. Lastly, the authors found that Narcissistic neuroticism was unrelated to human-centered empathy and positively related to animal-centered empathy and attitudes towards animals. Results from the study suggest how the two forms of empathy may be distinct and how even though subjects with narcissistic traits may have more difficulties in empathy towards humans, some narcissistic dimensions may be related to a conserved empathy towards animals. Consequently, these results imply the possibility of new strategies for therapeutic purposes, with the aim of teaching empathy towards humans using the feeling already present for the animals (Giacomin et al., 2023).

Other authors have also approached the topic of personality typology of pet-owners. For instance, in 2014, a study by Reevy and Delgato, hypothesized the presence of a link between the type of attachment of a subject towards his pet and his own personality traits. For this purpose, 1098 owners (F=872; M=219; mean age: 44.9±13.9 years) were recruited and assessed with the Big Five Inventory, the LAPS and the Pet Attachment Questionnaire. In particular, the Big Five Inventory investigates five different dimensions of personality such as openness to experience, extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, all of which have been shown to be closely related to the dimension of mental health (P. T. Costa & McCrae, 1992). From these results emerged that neuroticism and conscientiousness both predicted the presence of affection for a pet. Moreover, conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness significantly decreased avoidant attachment to pets, while neuroticism increased the chance of anxious attachment to pets. According to the authors, these results may be useful both in trying to better understand the bond between humans and animals and in the development of tools for improving such bond, as well as improving mental health of both humans and animals (Reevy & Delgado, 2014).

Another study from 2024 (Wells & Treacy, 2024) aimed to analyze some personality dimensions, in particular the so called ‘Big Five’ and ‘Dark Triad’, and investigate their correlation to the bond with one’s pets. The term ‘Dark Triad’ refers to a cluster of traits such as machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy, that have been correlated with emotional deficit (Gómez-Leal et al., 2019; Paulhus & Williams, 2002). The study was carried through an online survey, for a total of 938 participants (F=799; M=139) assessed with the Big Five Personality Scale-Short (BFI-S), the Short Dark Triad (SD3) and the LAPS. Results revealed significant correlations between many of the participants' personality traits and their bonds with the pets. In particular, pet attachment strength was positively related to neuroticism and conscientiousness, and also weakly to machiavellianism. Moreover, a regression analysis highlighted that females, dog owners, people aged over 50 years and individuals who had children under 18 to care for, were more strongly attached to their pets than others. Both neuroticism and conscientiousness were also found to be significant predictors of participants' pet attachment scores. Interestingly, none of the Dark Triad traits significantly predicted such criterion. In conclusion, the study suggested the presence of a relationship between pet attachment and the owner personality, at least concerning the Big Five dimension, supporting the theory that high levels of attachment are associated with personality traits that would favor poor mental health (Wells & Treacy, 2024).

Pet attachment mental health burden and Quality of Life

Another branch of research focused instead on pet owners’ mental health and quality of life, as well as on the role played by the relationship with the pet in these matters. In this framework, a 2024 study (Ellis et al., 2024), aimed to analyze the link between the pet-owner relationship and the owners own mental health. In particular, the authors focused on some relational areas chosen for their novelty such as self-expansion (as in the process by which positive contents are added to the self through incorporation of new resources and perspectives into one's identity), engagement in new and exciting activities, perceived pet responsiveness, perceived pet insensitivity and attachment. The study involved 1359 pet owners (F=734; M=610; non binary: 14, missing:1; mean age: 40.7±13.9 years), living in the United Kingdom. All participants were evaluated with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Assessment (GAD-7), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Revised University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale, the Perceived Pet Responsiveness Scale, the Perceived Pet Insensitivity Scale, the Companion Animals Self-Expansion Scale (CASES), the LAPS, and the AAS. The investigation aimed to explore the correlation between the previously listed dimensions and the presence of depression and anxiety, as well as positive and negative affect and loneliness in owners. Results showed that the perceived pet insensitivity and attachment were indeed positive predictors of depression, anxiety, and loneliness, with the first also being a positive predictor of negative affect, and the latter a negative predictor of positive affect. Lastly, self-expansion emerged as both a significant positive predictor of positive affect and negative predictor of loneliness. Although requiring further studies, such results highlighted how the variables taken into analysis can be effectively relevant for pet owners’ mental health, potentially pointing on which aspect needs to be improved through the relationship with the pet, in order to achieve a better quality of life for the owners (Ellis et al., 2024). Similarly, a previous study from White et al., investigated the weight of the presence of a pet on the overall quality of life of the owner, focusing on how the presence of anxious and avoidant attachment towards the pet may influence the quality of life of the owner (White et al., 2017). This study design involved a total of 73 subjects (F=55; M=17) who owned assistance dogs. All participants were evaluated with the Pet Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ) and the Quality-of-Life Scale. Surprisingly, the results showed that the presence of an anxious attachment predicted a greater quality of life of the owner, consequently suggesting that such attachment style is not always necessarily harmful. Upon those results, the authors hypothesizes that the feeling of insecurity that the subject may experience in relationships can be reduced due to the type of support that the assistance dog guarantees to the owner. This would therefore confirm how the impact of insecure attachment varies greatly based on the context and the subject analyzed (White et al., 2017).

Lass-Hennemann et al. investigated similar dynamics but considering only companion animals and not assistance ones (Lass-Hennemann et al., 2022). In particular, the authors investigated whether the presence and the type of attachment towards the pet could reduce the mental health quality of the owners. For this purpose, a total of 610 German dog owners (F=92.79%; M=7.05%; non binary=0.16%; mean age: 33.12±11.88 years) were recruited and assessed for pet attachment, human attachment and the burden on human mental health through the LAPS, Revised Adult Attachment Scale (R-AAS) and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). Results reported that attachment to humans fully mediated the positive association between emotional attachment to pets and mental health burden. A stronger emotional attachment to the dog was associated with less comfort in depending on or trusting others, which in turn was linked to a more significant mental health burden. Furthermore, a stronger attachment to the dog was also linked to a greater fear of being rejected and unloved, which was in turn associated with a greater burden on mental health. According to the authors, results from this study are in line with previous evidence that the presence of an emotional attachment to the pet can sometimes worsen the mental health of the subject, also describing for the first time the mediation of anxious attachment in such relationship. The authors also specified that their results need further investigation on whether the presence of an excessive emotional attachment to the pet may be developed secondarily to a previous negative experience and whether this sort of compensation strategy may be beneficial for the owner (Lass-Hennemann, et al., 2022).

While some studies investigating mental health outcomes of the emotional attachment to pets described a negative impact of emotional attachment on mental health (Lass-Hennemann et al., 2022), there are also studies that revealed how in situations of distress some subjects may use the relationship with the pet as a tool to cope with their difficulties. In this framework, one of the first studies carried by Kurdek (2009), aimed to investigate the ways in which a pet owner addresses his animal in moments of emotional distress through an online survey carried on 975 dog owners (F=789; M=186; mean age: 47.95±12.17 years). The study used an attachment scale designed by the author himself (Kurdek, 2008) and a scale adapted by the author starting from the 10-item Emotional Reliance. Results showed that the participants tended to address their dogs more than their parents, siblings, best friends and children while in situation of emotional distress. The only category that overcame the pet was that of the partner. Interestingly, some characteristics of the owner, such as male gender, being a widower, being involved in caring of the dog and having difficulties in confiding in others, made it more likely that the subject would turn to their pet rather than to humans in times of distress.

On this topic, a 2019 review (Wanser et al., 2019) analyzed whether the pet’s stress-supporting role is also present in children and not exclusively in adults. From the studies included in the review, the authors concluded that the presence of attachment towards dogs is greater in children who grew up in more problematic contexts, allowing them to find an alternative source of social support and to develop a series of psychological benefits that the context in which they lived would not otherwise guarantee them (Barlow et al., 2012; Parish-Plass, 2008). Although these observations require further studies, for instance to ensure a more in-depth knowledge of the phenomenon based on the age of the child and therefore the growth phase in which they are, the use of pets could be a useful tool to improve children’s wellbeing (Wanser et al., 2019).

Pet ownership and autism

Alongside the numerous studies carried in the general and non-clinical population, another branch of research focused instead on the study of pet’s attachment in selected clinical populations and, of particular and timely interest, are the studies involving subjects with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or neuroatypical development.

To date, only two studies have analyzed the phenomenon. The first, carried in 2022 by Atherton et al. (Atherton et al., 2023), aimed to investigate the characteristics of pet’s attachment in autistic subjects. For the purpose of the study, 326 subjects with a clinical diagnosis of ASD (F=150F; M=176; mean age: 28.64±9.57years) and 409 individuals who reported as neurotypical (F=286; M=123; mean age: 33.91±13.05), without distinction between pet-owner and non-, were recruited and assessed with the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), the Satisfaction with life Scale, The UCLA Loneliness Scale, The Multidimensional Scale of Percived Social Support (MSPSS) and the Autism Quotient (AQ). Additionally, subjects who owned pets were also assessed with the LAPS and the Critical Pet Rating. Results showed that people with neuroatypicality had the same attachment to pets compared to neurotypical peers, although the possibility of owning a pet is reduced. Moreover, neuroatypical subjects who managed to own an animal, showed better outcomes regarding their mental health; indeed, results showed that in such context, pets played a compensatory role, helping the owner to overcome their difficulties in having certain interpersonal contacts with other peers (Atherton et al., 2022). Another study on the topic was conducted in 2023 by the same authors (Atherton et al., 2023). The study focused more on a peculiar aspect of the relationship between pets and owners, namely the process of anthropomorphizing the animal and the investigation on whether this process is conducted similarly by neurotypical and neuroatypical subjects. The study involved 537 pet-owners (F=353; M=184), 40% of which had a clinical diagnosis of ASD (ASD mean age: 29.07±10.57 years; neurotypical mean age: 34.49±13.07 years). All subjects were assessed with the LAPS, and in particular the ‘People Substitution’ section, the Critical per Rating scale, the Connectedness to Nature Scale, the UCLA Loneliness Scale, and the AQ. Results showed that anthropomorphism is a common phenomenon among both autistic and neurotypical subjects. However, pet owners on the ASD spectrum reported greater loneliness and were more likely to replace people with pets; furthermore, it was observed that neurotypical pet owners evaluated pets more based on physical traits (i.e. muscular, active), and not in an anthropomorphic way. On the contrary, autistic pet owners were more likely to evaluate pets considering both physical and anthropomorphic traits equally. Lastly, from results emerged that both anthropomorphizing and connection to nature were positively correlated with autistic traits. Based on these observations, the authors suggested a greater strength of the bond with the natural world in subjects with autism and therefore the possibility of introducing animal-based interventions, or in general interventions related to contact with nature, in therapeutic pathways for autistic subjects, provided that the topic is understood more deeply in its therapeutic derivations (Atherton et al., 2022).

Pet ownership, grief and post traumatic growth (PTG)

Over the past decade, a growing number of studies have focused on the evaluation of the relationship between pet ownership, grief and PTG, specifically investigating the impact of the loss of a pet in the life of the owners and the derivations to which such event can lead. In 2019, Uccheddu et al. (2019) developed and validated a structured questionnaire, the Mourning Dog Questionnaire, that aimed to assess grief in subjects who had recently lost a pet (Uccheddu et al., 2019). The questionnaire investigated numerous aspects such as the levels of attachment to the pet, the response to the loss of a pet, the outlook on life events and the dimension of grief as well as the perceptions of animals in terms of emotions, needs and legal rights. For the validation, the authors recruited 369 Italian dog owners (F=329; M=38; mean age: 42.00±10.70 years) who had experienced the death of a dog and who also had another dog at the time of the first dog's death. Results from the study showed that pet owners tended to humanize their pet and to not perceive animals differently from humans in terms of emotions, needs and legal rights. Furthermore, after the death of the pet, the participants often reported a negative view of life. The authors suggested that such an instrument could be helpful in investigating the mourning associated with the death of a pet and the effects the loss can cause in humans in a broader diagnostic-therapeutic perspective within the sphere of human mental health (Uccheddu et al., 2019).

Interestingly, the current literature provides also description of PTG following the loss of a pet. In particular, in a 2016 study carried by Packman et al. (2016), attempted to investigate the dimensions of PTG in subjects who had admitted to having experienced such phenomenon after the death of their pet. The subjects were selected in several steps: in the first part of the survey, they were asked a specific question asking ‘Despite the painful experience of losing your pet, people sometimes describe having found something of personal value in having had to face such loss […]. Have you discovered something of personal value that has come out of your experience of the loss of your pet? (please answer yes or no)’. Those who answered yes had then to describe in their own words what kind of values emerged from the mourning situation and were subjected to a series of rating scales. For the purposes of the study, data were collected from 3804 participants, but only those who had answered yes were considered eligible (1950 people). A representative sample of 308 subjects (F=251; M=57) was then extracted through random selection and assessed with the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI), the Pet Attachment Scale (PAS), and the Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG). The most represented PTG factors were, in order from greatest to least, relating to others (n=76), appreciation of life (n=52), personal strength (n=51), spiritual change (n=32), and new possibilities (n=29). The relevance of this study lies in the fact that it is one of the first researches that aimed to define the phenomenon of PTG in a new and still little studied context, namely the loss of a pet, thus paving the way for a potential future line of investigation on the topic.

In this framework, in 2022, Park et al. carried out a study to understand how emotional and cognitive regulation resources could be useful in promoting PTG in pet owners who have lost their animal (Park & Jeong, 2022). For the study, 303 Korean pet owners (F=170; M=133; mean age: 34.7±12.9 years) who had experienced pet loss were recruited and assessed for the attachment to their animal, the dimension of separation pain, the cognitive and emotional regulation of the subject, and the dimensions of the PGI itself with the LAPS, the ICG, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the PTGI. Results highlighted that an adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategy strengthened the effect of pet attachment on PTG and diminished the effect on separation pain. In contrast, the maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategy (e.g., rumination, self- and other-criticism, catastrophizing) weakened the effect of pet attachment on PTG and strengthened the effect on separation pain.

These results raise the possibility that working more on the dimension of understanding the loss of one’s pet, trying to focus on the positive aspects and at the same time on the acceptance of reality would favor an easier overcoming of mourning and at the same time a more likely evolution towards PTG. Consequently, implementing adaptive strategies towards the traumatic event, as also happens for other types of traumas, would seem to constitute a potentially protective and therapeutic element towards overcoming the event and building resilience.

Pet relationship in individuals with panic disorder and separation anxiety

Pets can serve as valuable companions for individuals with panic disorder, providing emotional support, fostering routines, encouraging social interaction, and offering therapeutic benefits. There are several ways in which individuals with panic spectrum disorders may need to seek pets as lifelong companions: a) Emotional Support - 1. perception of unconditional love: pets offer unconditional love and companionship, which can alleviate feelings of loneliness and anxiety; 2. comfort: the presence of a pet can provide a calming effect during panic attacks or moments of heightened or anticipatory anxiety. In addition, the presence of a pet may contribute to reducing avoidant behaviors, especially in places where seeking help might be difficult. 3. reduced loss sensitivity: pets provide consistent companionship, which can help alleviate feelings of loneliness and anxiety when separated from loved attachments figures. b) Distraction - 1. focus shift: caring for a pet can help individuals shift their focus away from their anxiety, providing a healthy distraction during stressful moments. 2. engagement: Engaging in activities such as walking, playing, or grooming can redirect attention and promote a sense of normalcy. c. Routine and Structure - 1. daily responsibilities: having a pet requires a daily routine, which can instill a sense of purpose and structure in the owner's life. 2. predictability: pets thrive on routine, which can mirror the stability that individuals with panic disorder often seek to manage their anxiety and fear of separation from attachment figures.

d. Social Interaction - 1. facilitating connections: walking a dog or attending pet-related events can encourage social interaction, reducing feelings of isolation and providing opportunities to connect with others. 2. support networks: Pets can help individuals bond with others who have similar experiences, fostering support networks. e. Physical Contact - 1. tactile comfort: physical contact with a pet, such as petting or cuddling, can trigger the release of oxytocin, promoting feelings of calm and reducing stress levels. 2. grounding techniques: holding or petting a pet can serve as a grounding technique during a panic attack, helping individuals reconnect with the present moment.

f. Therapeutic Benefits - 1. animal-assisted therapy: structured therapy involving animals has been shown to help individuals with anxiety and panic disorder, providing both emotional and psychological benefits. 2. Service Animals: in some cases, specially trained service animals can assist individuals during panic attacks, alerting them to impending episodes or providing comfort.

Experimental evidences

Kovács et al. (2018) found that that genetic variations of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene in both dogs and their owners, as well as various aspects of dogs’ environmental background are associated with their attachment to their human caregivers. Therefore, polymorphism in the OXTR gene could be a potentially important factor in regulating dog-human relationship. Interestingly, previous researches found that patients with depression and separation anxiety disorder have similar patterns of OXTR polymorphisms and a tendency to a more severe forms of anxiety and mood disorders (B. Costa et al., 2009). We also found that GG genotype at position 6930 showed higher scores on the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ) factor ‘Need for approval’ compared to A-carriers at this position. This factor characterizes Bartholomew and Horowitz’s (1991) fearful and preoccupied groups and is included in the anxiety dimension of adult attachment style. Of the four categories of attachment style, fearful attachment is the most likely to be linked with risk of developing depression. It has been hypothesized that these individuals are anxious about being rejected, and at the same time, because they tend to avoid intimacy, they have difficulties in compensating for this anxiety by means of generating support from partners.

In the same study, it is interesting to note that an association between ‘Relationship as secondary’ factor and the GG genotype for the 9073G>A SNP was found. This factor corresponds to Bartholomew and Horowitz’s ‘dismissing’ domain (higher levels of avoidant attachment and lower levels of anxious attachment). These individuals compensate for a lack of social support, which is a consequence of their tendency to distrust others (high avoidance of intimacy), by means of their self-worth (low anxiety about rejection) (Conradi & De Jonge, 2008).

In summary, Kovasc et al. (2018), found that that dogs’ behavior in the Strange Situation Test is related to several aspects of owner personality and to the owner’s experience with romantic partners and dogs. The dogs’ Attachment score was significantly associated with their owners’ relationship both with their romantic partners and their dogs. Within this framework, the available data suggest that abnormal attachment style is related to depression and separation anxiety towards significant others. Therefore, it will be interesting to investigate how all these factors are connected each other and whether they affect individual’s vulnerability to psychopathology in pets’ owners.

Connection models between pet ownership and psychopathological dimensions

The following section presents a theoretically driven hypothesis developed from patterns identified in the literature reviewed above. While much research has focused on how pet attachment influences psychological outcomes, relatively little attention has been paid to the reverse possibility: that certain psychopathological features may drive individuals to seek out pets as alternative or compensatory attachment figures. This idea arises from consistent findings that link high pet attachment with characteristics such as childhood trauma, insecure attachment patterns, and low social support. Though causality cannot be inferred, these correlations provide the basis for proposing conceptual models that warrant empirical exploration.

In this theoretical framework, we hypothesize that several psychopathological spectrum dimensions can stimulate, at least in some individuals, the search for and need for a pet. figures 1, 2 and 3 summarize the main reasons for which subjects with psychopathological disorders may seek the company of a pet.

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

PD: panic disorder; SepA: separation anxiety disorder; BD: bipolar disorder; ASD: autism spectrum disorder; BPD: borderline personality disorder; PTSD: post-traumatic stress disorder

Conclusions

This review hypothesizes that examining the underlying connections between pet ownership and psychopathological traits may provide critical insights into aspects of human behavior that often go unnoticed in daily life but could gain clinical relevance under specific circumstances, such as the illness or loss of a pet, forced separations, or other external stressors.

The intricate relationship between pet attachment and owner personality underscores the profound influence pets exert on human emotional and psychological wellbeing. While research confirms that personality traits, such as neuroticism, conscientiousness, and empathy, play a pivotal role in shaping the bond between pets and their owners, this review highlights the potential for these connections to reveal more complex dynamics. In some cases, traits commonly associated with strong pet attachment—such as heightened empathy—may overlap with or conceal elements of psychological distress or disorders, broadening the interpretative framework for understanding these relationships.

Empathy, a critical factor in pet attachment, often correlates with greater emotional bonding and enhanced quality of life for pet owners (Giacomin et al., 2023; Sung & Han, 2023). However, this dynamic is not without complexity. Even traits traditionally viewed as unfavorable, such as narcissism, can manifest in unexpectedly positive ways, such as increased care and affection for animals (Giacomin et al., 2023; Reevy & Delgado, 2014; Wells & Treacy, 2024). Conversely, excessive attachment can introduce emotional vulnerabilities, suggesting a need for balance to avoid undue psychological burdens.

Pets are widely recognized as sources of emotional security, particularly for individuals experiencing loneliness or social anxiety, and they often serve as therapeutic tools in populations with neuroatypical traits, such as autism. These bonds can foster social interaction and emotional expression, compensating for challenges in human relationships (Kurdek, 2008; Wanser et al., 2019). However, this same emotional reliance may, in some cases, predispose individuals to abnormal emotional or behavioral responses, particularly in the face of attachment disruptions.

By investigating the complex interplay between pet attachment and owner personality, future research can illuminate how these bonds influence psychological well-being and uncover elements that might otherwise be overlooked. This deeper understanding holds potential for clinical applications, including interventions aimed at fostering empathy, addressing maladaptive attachments, and optimizing the therapeutic use of the human-animal bond. Ultimately, this exploration underscores the dual role of pets as both emotional companions and indicators of underlying psychological processes, offering opportunities to promote mental health and enhance the quality of life for both humans and animals.