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. 2025 Oct 10;15:1554846. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2025.1554846

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Copyright © 2025 Pan, Zhang, Qiu, Peng, Kang, Tung and Shen.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Forest plots display meta-analysis results for four biodiversity indices: ACE, Chao1, Shannon, and Simpson. Each plot includes study names, sample sizes, means, standard deviations, standardized mean differences (SMD), confidence intervals, and weights. Random and common effect models are presented with heterogeneity statistics, showing variation in study results. Each plot visually shows SMDs with confidence intervals across negative and positive values, indicating effect size differences between experimental and control groups. — Meta-analysis of gut microbiome diversity in COPD patients.