Table 5.

Applications of emerging technologies in LAI and their outcomes.

Technology class	Specific innovation	Application function	Key outcomes/indicators	Development stage	Reference
Artificial intelligence	Multivariate prediction model	Pregnancy forecasting	AUC = 0.86	Field-tested	(11)
	Fertility model (in vitro)	Standardized threshold prediction	Improved predictive accuracy	Under development	(29)
Computer vision	YOLO v3–based detection	Estrus detection	Precision 98.56%, recall 98.04%	Field-tested	(38)
	Lightweight neural network	Real-time estrus monitoring	Accuracy 99.44%, FPS 48.39	Field-tested	(39)
	Non-contact biometrics	Heat stress monitoring	Visible + infrared imaging, ML modeling	Prototype	(40)
Robotics	Robotic-assisted LAI systems	Precision surgical assistance	Tremor filtration, motion scaling	Conceptual	(47–49)
	ZEUS robotic platform	Surgical assistance	Enhanced 3D visualization and fine motor control	Experimental	(50)
AR/VR	Augmented reality navigation	Intraoperative guidance	3D anatomical overlays	Prototype	(50–53)
	VR-based training	Skill acquisition	Safe and repeatable learning environment	Implemented	(18, 62)
IoT	Wearable sensors	Physiological monitoring	Body temperature, heart rate, activity patterns	Commercial use	(56)
	Digital twin systems	Individualized management	Virtual models for simulation and decision support	Conceptual	(58, 59)