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. 2025 Oct 13;12:1655302. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2025.1655302

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Copyright © 2025 Su, Chen, Wang, Song, Xu, Lin and Lin.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Flowchart depicting patient inclusion and exclusion in a study. Initially, 142 patients were assessed for eligibility. Thirteen were excluded due to incomplete clinical data, and twelve were excluded for lacking pre-treatment photographs. The analysis included 117 patients, divided into a training set of 83 patients and a validation set of 34 patients. — Patient inclusion flow. The patient cohort was randomly divided into a training set (n = 83) and a validation set (n = 34). Baseline characteristics were compared between the training and validation sets to ensure comparability.