Abstract
Background
The Tripuri people possess a rich cultural heritage, a deep-rooted tradition, and extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. However, their medicinal knowledge remains poorly documented. Therefore, this study aims to comprehensively report their ethnomedicinal knowledge with the following objectives: (1) exploring the relationship between socio-demographics and familiarity with traditional medicinal plants using statistical analysis, (2) creating a comprehensive record of the medicinal properties and applications of plants used by the Tripuri people, (3) identifying key indicator species utilized in the fringe villages of three contiguous reserve forests using multivariate statistical analysis, (4) examining the diversity and application methods of medicinal plants in contiguous reserve forests, and (5) consensus among informants regarding the use of medicinal plants for the management of diseases prevalent in the study area.
Methods
From 2024 to 2025, 200 respondents (n = 200), comprising traditional healers, farmers, traders, housewives, and employees aged 30–99, were interviewed via snowball sampling. Data collection involved observation, a semi-structured questionnaire, and individual interviews, followed by statistical analysis. Multivariate analysis identified key indicator species used by Tripuri people, and the information consensus factor (ICF) was also evaluated.
Results
A total of 105 plant species belonging to 53 families were documented, with leaves being the most commonly used plant part. Poultice and infusion were the primary application methods. Moreover, a comparison with previous works on novel reports, commonalities, and their cultural interpretations revealed the highest Jaccard index (JI) value of 10.65 from Barpeta District in Assam. In contrast, the lowest JI value of 1.15 was recorded from the Gingee Hills in Tamil Nadu. Additionally, most indicator species were found in the fringe villages of the Deo Reserve Forest (DRF). Notably, the ICF of 1 was recorded for disease categories related to pregnancy and childbirth, while other categories showed ICF values ranging from 0.97 to 0.98.
Conclusion
The present study reflects their extensive knowledge of medicinal plants, cultural beliefs, and their deep connection with nature. Traditional healers play a crucial role in conserving these medicinal plants. However, young people are gradually shifting away from traditional medical practices.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-025-00819-8.
Keywords: Indigenous knowledge, Medicinal plants, Key indicator species, Information consensus factor
Background
Traditional medicine encompasses the knowledge, expertise, and methods derived from indigenous theories, beliefs, and experiences across various cultures, regardless of their explanations. It is used to preserve well-being and to prevent, diagnose, treat, or improve physical and mental ailments and has been practiced by different cultures around the world for millennia [1]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 80% of the world's population relies on traditional medicine, which includes indigenous remedies, herbal therapies, yoga, Ayurveda, acupuncture, and acupressure. For many people, traditional medicine remains the leading healthcare option, and traditional healers have long played a crucial role in managing chronic illnesses [2]. It is a unique technique or skill developed in antiquity and transmitted across generations, remaining exclusive to a single community or tribe, local population, or family lineage [3]. Medicinal plants have been employed in the management of diverse human ailments and remain an integral component of indigenous people’s lifestyles [4]. Traditional medicines have historically been a cost-effective and easily accessible alternative for primary healthcare in remote areas where access to modern healthcare facilities is often limited [5]. In India, plant-based medicines have been used for centuries to treat illnesses within traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, and the Sushruta Samhita, as well as the traditional medicine systems of Northeast India. [4]. However, rapid urbanization, changing lifestyles, industrialization, deforestation, and the growing interest in allopathic medicine are leading to a decline in the use of traditional medicines among young people, which poses a risk of losing valuable medicinal knowledge among many ethnic groups [6]. Tripura is a tiny highland state in northeast India and a component of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. The state's diverse topography, characterized by hilly areas, adequate rainfall, varying climatic conditions, and diverse soil types, provides a suitable environment for a broad range of medicinal flora. It is home to over 1545 plant species, many of which are endemic. The state comprises 19 unique tribes, each with a well-established system of traditional medicine [7]. The indigenous groups live in proximity to the forest, and their livelihoods are closely tied to it. In the present study, the guidelines of the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-3) were used to define disease categories and identify the use of medicinal plants in different ailment categories [8]. Plant-based therapies are often the only healthcare option for rural populations in third-world countries like India, where access to advanced medical facilities is limited. In Tripura, the Tripuri tribe is the largest among the tribal communities, followed by Reang, Chakma, Halam, Garo, Lusai, and others. Previously, ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in the Unakoti district [9–11]. However, they are limited in scope and do not fully capture the diversity of the traditional healing practices among the indigenous Tripuri people. Due to inadequate modern medical infrastructure, these communities continue to depend on plant-based remedies for basic healthcare. Ethnomedicinal research reveals that various ethnic groups utilize a wide range of medicinal plants and employ specific application methods. This study focused on the traditional medicinal practices of Tripura’s leading tribal group, the Tripuri, living in Unakoti district. Additionally, rapid urbanization and the migration of young people to cities in search of employment and improved living conditions pose a threat to the preservation of traditional healing practices and the knowledge of medicinal plants. Therefore, it is crucial to record the valuable medicinal knowledge of this Tripuri tribe. Furthermore, this study focuses on villages adjacent to three reserve forests in order to gain a deeper understanding of the region's unique medicinal plant diversity and ecological relationships. The Tripuri tribes possess a rich ethnomedicinal heritage; however, earlier studies were mainly descriptive, lacking quantitative data. This research introduces a quantitative approach to document the ethnomedicinal knowledge of the Tripuri tribe, for the first time. Moreover, the loss of this knowledge—accelerated by modern influences and inadequate systematic documentation—threatens the preservation of indigenous wisdom. Therefore, the present study documented the local medicinal plants used in primary healthcare, providing insights into the community's knowledge and use of these plants. Specifically, this study aimed to (1) explore the relationship between socio-demographics and familiarity with traditional medicinal plants using statistical analysis, (2) create a comprehensive record of the medicinal properties and applications of plants used by the Tripuri people, (3) conduct a cross-cultural comparison with the studies from other regions of India and (4) analyse the consensus within the community regarding the use of medicinal plants. Additionally, this study can support habitat conservation and environmental monitoring, helping to protect plant species, indigenous cultures, and their interactions.
Methods
Description of the study area
The investigation was conducted in eight villages bordering the Uttar Unakoti Reserve Forest (UURF), five villages adjacent to the Daksin Unakoti Reserve Forest (DURF), and eight villages close to the Deo Reserve Forest (DRF) in the Unakoti district of Tripura (Fig. 1 and Table 1). The informants had access to forest resources as they resided within 10 kms of the reserve forests. The areas are categorized as subtropical due to their warm and humid climate, which receives moderate amounts of rainfall during the monsoon season, providing a favourable environment for the growth of various medicinal plants.
Fig. 1.
Map of the study area: a India, b Tripura, and c the investigated sites (fringe villages) of Uttar Unakoti Reserve Forest, Dakshin Unakoti Reserve Forest, and Deo Reserve Forest in Unakoti district, Tripura, northeast India
Table 1.
Survey locations in the study area, coordinates, altitude, number of representatives, gender, age group, and occupation
| Name of the reserve forest(s) | Name of the vicinal villages of the reserve forest (s) | GPS Coordinates of the visited location(s) | Altitude (m) | Ecology | Major ethnic groups | Language | Religion | No. of inhabitants | No. of informants | Gender wise no. of informants | Age group(s) | No. of informants/ age group | Occupation | No. of informants/ occupation type |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uttar Unakoti Reserve Forest | Deorachhara | 24°21′11.8"N 92°03′15.2"E | 48 | Forested area, uniquely situated at higher elevation in Unakoti district, offers a fascinating ecological landscape; boasts rugged terrain and a cozy climate and hosts a rich variety of flora and fauna (dominated by Tectona grandis, Albizia lebbeck, and Dipterocarpus turbinatus which is a testament to its ecological importance) [12, 13] |
Tripuri, Darlong, Reang, Khasi, Bengali, Halam, Chakma, Orang, Chaimal |
Kokborok, Darlong Tawng, Bengali, Changma Hodha, Khasi |
Hinduism, Christianity, & Islam |
3684 | 11 |
8(M) 3(F) |
30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79 |
2 1 3 1 4 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
2 5 2 2 |
| Belkumbari | 24°19′46.7"N 92°03′08.0"E | 33 | 350 | 7 |
4(M) 3(F) |
40- 49, 50- 59, 60–69, 80–89 |
2 1 2 2 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
1 4 1 1 |
|||||
| Bhagaban Nagar | 24°18′10.9"N 92°02′35.2"E | 58 | 3719 | 10 |
6(M) 4(F) |
30- 39, 40- 49, 50- 59, 60- 69, 70–79, 80–89 |
2 1 3 1 2 1 |
Farmers, traders, housewives, and government servants |
5 1 1 3 |
|||||
| Sonamukhi | 24°16′42.2"N 92°01′57.4"E | 61 | 511 | 7 |
4(M) 3(F) |
30- 39, 40- 49, 50- 59, 60- 69 |
1 3 2 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, housewives, and government servants |
1 4 1 1 |
|||||
| Hirachhara | 24°21′33.8"N 92°02′38.1"E | 67 | 3457 | 9 |
5(M) 4(F) |
40- 49, 50- 59, 60–69, 80–89, 90-above |
2 2 2 2 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, housewives, and government servants |
1 4 1 1 2 |
|||||
| Chinibagan | 24°18′19.8"N 92°02′55.5"E | 62 | 330 | 9 |
6(M) 3(F) |
30- 39, 50- 59, 60- 69, 70–79, 80–89 |
2 2 1 3 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
1 5 1 2 |
|||||
| Dhatuchhara | 24°15′09.6"N 92°03′08.1"E | 64 | 990 | 10 |
6(M) 4(F) |
30–39, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89 |
2 1 6 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
3 4 1 2 |
|||||
| Gournagar | 24°17′40.0"N 92°01′16.6"E | 24 | 3832 | 7 |
5(M) 2(F) |
40–49, 50- 59, 60- 69, 70–79, |
1 3 1 2 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
2 3 1 1 |
|||||
| Dakshin Unakoti Reserve Forest | Pencharthal | 24°11′18.1"N 92°06′17.8"E | 59 | Located in the southern part of Unakoti district, this forest resembles Uttar Unakori in topographical traits with comparable flora and fauna |
Tripuri, Chakma, Reang, Bengali, Halam |
Kokborok, Bengali, Changma Hodha |
Hinduism, Christianity, & Islam |
5768 | 16 |
9(M) 7(F) |
30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89, 90- above |
2 3 3 1 5 1 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, housewives, and government servants |
4 6 1 2 3 |
| Sonaimuri | 24°11′48.6"N 92°02′34.7"E | 46 | 4071 | 8 |
4(M) 4(F) |
30–39, 40–49, 50–59 |
1 5 2 |
Farmers, traders, and housewives |
5 1 2 |
|||||
| Krishnanagar | 24°12′31.4"N 92°00′45.3"E | 34 | 3925 | 7 |
4(M) 3(F) |
30–39, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89 |
2 1 3 1 |
Farmers, traders, and housewives |
5 1 1 |
|||||
| Nabincherra | 24°12′08.3"N 92°08′09.6"E | 51 | 4191 | 11 |
7(M) 4(F) |
40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89 |
2 3 1 4 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
2 7 1 1 |
|||||
| Purbba Andharchhara | 24°14′02.7"N 92°07′12.8"E | 72 | 1684 | 5 |
4(M) 1(F) |
50–59, 60–69 |
4 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
2 1 1 1 |
|||||
|
Deo Reserve Forest |
Betchhara | 24°07′22.4"N 92°01′29.7"E | 73 | Deo reserve forest exhibits significant ecological importance and is characterized by diverse flora and fauna; deciduous and mixed woodlands support substantial Shorea robusta populations and various bamboo species, playing play a critical role as an ecosystem in climate regulation, offering essential habitats for wildlife, and contributing to sustainability of livelihoods of local communities |
Tripuri, Darlong, Reang, Chakma, Bengali |
Kokborok, Darlong Tawng, Bengali, Changma Hodha |
Hinduism, Christianity, & Islam |
1222 | 8 |
5(M) 3(F) |
40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89 |
1 2 1 3 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, and housewives |
1 5 1 1 |
| Kanchanchhara | 24°05′43.2"N 92°02′09.3"E | 107 | 3251 | 6 |
3(M) 3(F) |
30–39, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79 |
2 2 1 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, and housewives |
3 2 1 |
|||||
| Rabiraipara | 24°03′14.2"N 92°08′12.6"E | 111 | 944 | 11 |
6(M) 5(F) |
30–39, 40- 49, 50–59, 60–69 |
2 3 3 3 |
Traditional healers, farmers, and housewives |
2 8 1 |
|||||
| Dhannichhara | 24°09′27.6"N 92°06′52.3"E | 46 | 4883 | 14 |
7(M) 7(F) |
30–39, 40- 49, 50- 59, 60–69, 80–89 |
1 2 3` 7 2 |
Traditional healers, farmers, traders, housewives, and government servants |
4 5 1 1 3 |
|||||
| Dakshin Machmara | 24°05′14.8"N 92°07′15.0"E | 40 | 3232 | 8 |
3(M) 5(F) |
30–39, 50- 59, 60–69, 70–79 |
2 3 1 2 |
Farmers, and housewives |
6 2 |
|||||
| Uttar Machmara | 24°07′23.6"N 92°07′02.2"E | 53 | 5111 | 8 |
6(M) 2(F) |
40- 49, 50- 59, 60–69, 80–89 |
1 2 4 1 |
Farmers, traders, and housewives, |
5 1 2 |
|||||
| Nalkata | 24°10′10.9"N 92°06′47.1"E | 48 | 2920 | 11 |
5(M) 6(F) |
30–39, 50- 59, 60- 69, 80–89, 90-above |
1 2 6 1 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, and housewives |
1 8 2 |
|||||
| Kumarghat | 24°09′44.5"N 92°01′53.2"E | 42 | 5059 | 17 |
10(M) 7(F) |
30–39, 40- 49, 50- 59, 60- 69, 80–89, 90-above |
2 1 10 1 2 1 |
Traditional healers, farmers, housewives, and government servants |
4 5 2 6 |
Description of informants
A total of 200 responses (n = 200) were recorded in the study, comprising 34 traditional healers who were actively involved in medicinal practices and 166 non-professional individuals, such as traders, farmers, and housewives, who provided occasional folk treatment to the family, relatives, and neighbours in the community. Men (117) and women (83) informants of different age groups were considered during the study period to document the traditionally used medicinal plants for managing various ailments.
UURF is roughly 9–10 km from the district headquarters of Kailashahar, whereas DURF is situated 8–9 km from the subdivisional town of Kumarghat. DRF is about 9 km away from the Machmara Bazar village in the Kumarghat subdivision of Unakoti district.
The Unakoti forest range is protected by the Government of Tripura exclusively for ecotourism and scientific research. The Unakoti forest range has also been declared a world heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The ancient people have carved a variety of mythological scenarios, including diverse iconographic forms of gods and goddesses, on the vertical surface of the Unakoti hills. Unakoti is renowned for its massive rock carvings, which depict Hindu deities. To date, the forest dwellers and other native communities in the surrounding areas continue to worship the iconographic forms (rock cuts) for prosperity and well-being [9].
The Unakoti hill range is also characterized by diverse flora, including significant tree species such as Tectona grandis (segun), Albizia lebbeck (shirish), and Dipterocarpus turbinatus (garjan). Moreover, the ecosystem supports a wide variety of herbaceous plants, shrubs, ferns, and bryophytes, thereby contributing to its rich biodiversity [10]. The coordinates of the Unakoti district are 24.2366° North and 92.0199° East, with an average altitude of 915 m above sea level [10]. The district receives approximately 2616.20 mm of rainfall annually and experiences four distinct seasons: winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon. The average annual temperature is 20–30.5 °C [11]. However, access to modern healthcare facilities remains limited in this predominantly rural district. The district has two moderately equipped contemporary hospitals and twelve primary health centres in urban areas. However, most of the population in the region's remote areas depend mainly on herbal remedies for primary healthcare.
Ethnobotanical survey
This study followed the ethical guidelines of the International Society of Ethnobiology [14]. It was conducted through face-to-face interviews with local healers and other community members using a semi-structured questionnaire to gain a unique and valuable perspective on their traditional healing practices. The snowball sampling technique was employed for data collection in order to access specific populations. This method was chosen to leverage referrals from key information sources, ensuring information was gathered from the most knowledgeable individuals [15]. Elders and herbalists from the communities provided the majority of key crucial responses. A comprehensive dataset of floral, agricultural, and cultural information was collected from the informants through multiple visits during the study. This approach allowed for accounting for seasonal variations in both illnesses and the availability of plant remedies, which could influence how the informants discuss plant species and their medicinal use against particular ailments [16].
Interview with participants
Each participant received an oral explanation of the study's purpose and gave their consent before any information was collected. Each candidate attended the interview voluntarily and was free to leave anytime. The traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat various ailments among each participant was documented using a semi-structured questionnaire. Information on medicinal plants, their uses, dose preparation, and applications was gathered. During the interview, personal data on respondents’ age, occupation, marital status, and gender were recorded [17]. Additionally, respondents’ location, educational qualifications, and how they acquired the traditional medicinal knowledge of plants were noted. The interviews were conducted in the official languages of Tripura state—in Bengali (a language widely understood and spoken by most of the communities, including the Tripuri community) and in Kokborok (the local language of the Tripuri community with the help of translators, viz. Hasi Debbarma, Subudh Debbarma, and Swarup Debbarma).
Collection and identification
Plant specimens were collected from the study sites based on their vernacular names. A qualified taxonomist recognized and authenticated the voucher specimens for all the plants collected during the investigation. Herbaria were prepared to maintain taxonomic standards, and the taxonomic classification was validated by a qualified plant taxonomist (Dr. Prantosh Roy). Additionally, https://powo.science.kew.org/ [18] and https://www.worldfloraonline.org/ [19] were consulted to validate the identified plant species further. Collected plant species were submitted to the central herbarium of the government degree college (Ambedkar College, Fatikroy, Unakoti, Tripura) for further research and educational purposes.
Data analysis
Statistical analysis
The data obtained from the investigation were thoroughly analysed using statistical tests such as the Kruskal–Wallis H-test, Mann–Whitney U test, Chi-square test, and Fisher’s exact test. The Kruskal–Wallis test was employed to compare more than two independent groups with non-normally distributed continuous variables. Meanwhile, the Mann–Whitney U test compared two independent groups with non-normal continuous data. The Chi-square test assessed relationships between two categorical variables with expected frequencies of five or more; when expected frequencies were below five, Fisher’s exact test provided a more precise analysis. These tests helped evaluate participants' knowledge of medicinal plants across various age groups, genders, educational levels, occupations, and other demographics, ensuring the reliability of responses and determining the significance of ethnobotanical knowledge.
Furthermore, a multivariate analysis was conducted using the Paleontological Statistics (PAST) software, version 10.3, to identify indicator species. Moreover, the Jaccard index (JI) was utilized to compare the current study's results with previously published data from various regions in India, based on the formula established by González-Tejero et al. [19] and Haq et al. [20].
Here, A number of taxa reported in the previous study, B number of taxa reported in the present study, and C common species between A and B.
Use reports (URs)
Information regarding medicinal plants was organized by use reports (URs). Each UR contained information such as the plant's scientific name, vernacular name, plant part(s) used, treated ailment(s), and safety measurements [20]. Uses of medicinal plants for various ailments were organized according to ICPC-3 [8].
Use value (UV)
The present study documented 14 disease categories, including 83 different types of ailments. Use value (UV) indicates the relative importance of each medicinal plant species based on the number of documented uses for each species locally. It is considered a baseline matrix for ethnobotanical studies. UV for each plant species was calculated using the formula as given below [21].
Here, Ui is the total number of uses for a particular species stated by each of the informants, and n is the total number of informants who reported that species.
Informant consensus factor (ICF)
Informant consensus factor (ICF) was employed to evaluate the homogeneity or consistency of the informants' knowledge regarding particular treatment for a specific ailment. The ICF for each category of ailment was computed. It drew attention to plant species relevant to local culture and promoted consensus on plant usage [22].
where “Nur” is the number of valuable reports in each category, and “Nt” is the number of species in each category. This component has a value between 0 and 1. An agreement among respondents about the use of taxa within a medicinal category is indicated by a high ICF value. The percentage of respondents who cited a species indicates its relative importance.
Results
Bridging generational gaps in ethnomedicinal knowledge
From the perspective of age distribution and its implications for identifying medicinal plants, we collected data across seven age groups: 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89, and 90 or older (Table 2). We formulated the null hypothesis (H0) that there is no significant difference in medicinal plants knowledge across these age groups. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis (H1) proposes that there are notable differences. Since the data exhibited unequal variances and were not normally distributed, we employed the Kruskal–Wallis H-test to compare the groups.
Table 2.
Knowledge of medicinal plant species by age group and educational status, categorized by gender
| Age group | Average number of medicinal plants known | Educational status | Number of medicinal plants identified | Knowledge of medicinal plant species | Male | Female |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 30–39 | 11 | No formal education | 14 | Basic | 29 | 48 |
| 40–49 | 21 | Primary | 18 | Moderate | 53 | 33 |
| 50–59 | 19 | Secondary | 15 | Advanced | 35 | 2 |
| 60–69 | 15 | Higher | 17 | - | - | - |
| 70–79 | 16 | - | - | - | - | - |
| 80–89 | 19 | - | - | - | - | - |
| 90-above | 12 | - | - | - | - | - |
The calculated Kruskal–Wallis H statistic was 17.751, with a p-value of 0 0.007 (p < 0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected at the 5% significance level, confirming that knowledge about the number of medicinal plants varies significantly across the evaluated age groups. Findings indicate that individuals aged 40–49 possess the most extensive knowledge of medicinal plants, followed by those in the 50–59, 70–79, 60–69, and 80–89 age brackets. It is plausible that middle-aged populations (40–59 years) have accumulated substantial knowledge through experiential learning and active engagement with traditional medicinal systems. Conversely, younger adults (30–39 years) and elders (aged 90 and above) demonstrate the lowest levels of knowledge, potentially due to a shift towards modern pharmaceutical practices amongst younger cohorts and age-related cognitive decline among older adults. This may be due to impaired memory and reduced participation in traditional medicinal practices. This trend underscores the influence of lifestyle changes and cognitive factors on the retention and transmission of ethnomedicinal knowledge. Additionally, the study aimed to explore the frequency of medicinal plants used across different age groups using Fisher's exact test. The null hypothesis (H0) states that there is no significant difference in medicinal plant use among the age groups, while the alternative hypothesis (H1) proposes that such differences do exist. The results yielded a p-value of 00.019 (p < 0.05), leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis at the 5% significance level. This indicates a statistically significant difference in the frequency of medicinal plant use across age groups. The middle-aged groups and elders, specifically those aged 50–59, 60–69, and 70–79 years, demonstrated a significantly higher frequency of using medicinal plants. In contrast, younger adults aged 30–39 and very elderly individuals aged 90 and above reported lower utilization of medicinal plants. These findings underscore the impact of age on traditional medicinal practices and suggest a potential generational shift in the reliance on or knowledge of medicinal plant use. Furthermore, the study also assessed the depth of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants among different age groups, measured by the number of recognized medicinal plants, their various uses, and understanding of culturally essential practices. The null hypothesis (H0) states that traditional knowledge does not significantly vary among age groups, whereas the alternative hypothesis (H1) suggests there are significant differences. A Chi-square test of independence was conducted, producing a Chi-square statistic of 31. 253 and a p-value of 0 0.001 (p < 0 0.05). This strong evidence led to rejecting the null hypothesis at the 5% significance level, confirming that there are statistically significant differences in traditional knowledge among age groups. The present research indicates a trend in the understanding of conventional medicine across different age groups within the Tripuri people. Specifically, individuals aged 50–59, 60–69, and 70–79 demonstrate a solid grasp of traditional medicinal practices. In contrast, those aged 30–39 and 40–49 generally possess a more basic comprehension of ethnomedicine. This suggests that elderly individuals have a richer understanding of the application and cultural significance of medicinal plants compared to their younger counterparts. The findings highlight the importance of age-related experience and knowledge retention in the context of traditional healing practices.
Understanding and application of medicinal plants according to gender
To achieve the goal, we consider the null hypothesis (H0) that there are no differences in the understanding of medicinal plants across genders. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis (H1) is that significant differences exist. Given that the group variances are not homogeneous, and the samples diverge from a normal distribution, the Mann–Whitney U test was employed to evaluate the potential influence of gender on knowledge of the number of medicinal plants. The computed Mann–Whitney U statistic was 2440, while the p-value for this test was 0.000 (p < 0.05). Consequently, H0 was rejected at the 5% significance level. The study reveals a significant variation in knowledge of medicinal plants between male and female participants. Specifically, male participants demonstrate a more comprehensive understanding of medicinal plants compared to females. This suggests gender differences in interactions with, learning about, and utilization of medicinal plants, which may have implications for both traditional knowledge systems and future research on plant-based medicine. Further investigation could explore the factors contributing to these disparities, such as cultural practices, education, and environmental interactions (Table 2). A Chi-square test was conducted to assess the frequency of medicinal plant usage across genders. The calculated Chi-square statistic was 17.124, with a corresponding p-value of 0.000 (p < 0.05). Thus, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected at the 5% significance level, indicating that male participants demonstrate a significantly higher frequency of medicinal plant utilization compared to female participants. Furthermore, a separate Chi-square test was performed to evaluate the influence of gender on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. The resulting Chi-square statistic for this analysis was 33.974, with a p-value of 0.000 (p < 0.05). This also resulted in the rejection of the null hypothesis (H0) at the 5% significance level, suggesting that there is a significant difference in traditional knowledge of medicinal plants between genders. Specifically, male participants demonstrated a greater understanding of traditional medicine compared to female participants, as males are more likely to be engaged with ethnomedicinal practices.
The connection between participants' education and their understanding of the uses of medicinal plants
Most informants reported completing their primary education, while 18% remained illiterate. However, it is worth noting that individuals with formal and informal education (formally illiterate) demonstrated a profound understanding of the usage of various medicinal plants. The Kruskal–Wallis H-test was employed to assess the relationship between educational attainment, awareness of traditional medicinal flora, and the frequency of utilization for different health conditions. To reach our goal, we define a null hypothesis (H0) stating there is no meaningful difference between educational qualification and knowledge or use of medicinal plants. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis (H1) suggests that significant differences do exist. The Kruskal–Wallis H statistic yielded a value of 3.751 and a p-value of 0.290 (p > 0.05). Consequently, H0 could not be rejected at a 5% significance level, indicating that understanding the number of medicinal plants does not statistically differ among diverse educational backgrounds. Individuals without formal education reported an average of 14 plant species, while those with primary education reported an average of 18 species. In contrast, individuals with secondary education identified approximately 15 species, and those holding graduate degrees reported an average of 17 plant species. The understanding of medicinal plants and their utilization by the Tripuri people represents a rich intersection of ethnomedicinal knowledge and cultural heritage. Since the utilization of medicinal plants is primarily transmitted through oral presentations by traditional healers and elders, it highlights the importance of intergenerational learning in preserving traditional wisdom. The medicinal plants are not only a source of therapeutics but also have deep cultural value. Therefore, from childhood, this knowledge is transmitted, and a lack of formal education does not hinder the acquisition of knowledge; instead, it underscores the effectiveness of experiential learning within their cultural framework. This tradition emphasizes a profound relationship with nature, where understanding and respect for medicinal plants are integral to the community’s identity and health practices. In examining the frequency of medicinal plant usage across different academic backgrounds, we formulate the null hypothesis (H0) as stating that there are no significant differences between educational background and the usage of medicinal plants. The alternative hypothesis (H1) posits that differences do exist. The Chi-square statistic recorded for the frequency of medicinal plant usage across varying educational levels was 2.275, with a p-value of 0.321 (p > 0.05). Hence, H0 could not be rejected at a 5% significance level, indicating that the frequency of medicinal plant utilization does not significantly differ by educational attainment, as the Tripuri people understand the use of medicinal plants from childhood and gain experience with age. Additionally, we examined whether educational level influences self-reported effectiveness of medicinal plants. We formulated the null hypothesis (H0): the self-reported effectiveness of medicinal plants is not significantly different across various educational levels. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis (H1) states that the self-reported effectiveness of medicinal plants differs significantly across different educational levels. The p-value from Fisher’s exact test was 0.142, which exceeds the threshold of 0.05. Therefore, the self-reported efficacy of medicinal plants does not vary significantly across different educational levels, as this tribe maintains strong cultural beliefs in traditional healing practices and chooses medicinal plants based on experiential knowledge rather than scientific validation.
Influence of profession on knowledge of medicinal plants and their utilization
The majority of the informants surveyed were farmers, accounting for 51% of the respondents. This was followed by traditional healers at 17%, housewives at 15%, government employees at 9%, and traders at 8%. To assess the impact of the participants' professions on their knowledge of medicinal plants, we formulated a null hypothesis (H0) which states that there is no significant difference in understanding of medicinal plants across different occupations. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis (H1) posits that there is a significant difference in this knowledge among various occupations. The analysis yielded a Kruskal–Wallis H statistic of 25.085 with a p-value of 0.000 (p < 0.05). As a result, we rejected the null hypothesis at the 5% significance level, concluding that knowledge of medicinal plants varies significantly among different occupations. The data revealed that traditional healers had an average understanding of 48 medicinal plants, while traders averaged 13, government employees approximately 11, and both farmers and homemakers averaged around 10 plants. Traditional healers, who formed the primary group of informants, typically gain their expertise over the years through practice in ethnomedicine. It was also found that traditional healers, traders, and government employees frequently used medicinal plants. Specifically, 75.2% of farmers and 70.8% of housewives reported using these plants regularly, while 18.4% of farmers and 8.3% of housewives occasionally used them. Only 6.4% of farmers and 20.8% of housewives stated that they rarely used medicinal plants.
Furthermore, traders, housewives, and government employees exhibited advanced knowledge of these plants. Basic traditional knowledge of medicinal plants was held by 49.6% of farmers, 11.1% of traders, 41.7% of housewives, and 57.1% of government employees. Additionally, moderate conventional knowledge was found in 2.9% of traditional healers, 48% of farmers, 88.9% of traders, 58.3% of housewives, and 42.9% of government workers.
All traders and government employees rated medicinal plants as highly effective. Traditional healers (97.1%), farmers (96%), and housewives (83.3%) also rated these plants highly effective, whereas only 4% of farmers and 16.7% of housewives rated them as moderately effective.
Influence of income level on the frequency of use of medicinal plants
The frequency of medicinal plant use was significantly correlated with income levels. Among the respondents classified within the low-income demographic, there was unanimous (100%) reporting of regular medicinal plant usage, with 80.90% utilizing these remedies consistently, 12.60% doing so occasionally, and 6.50% infrequently. This group's economic barriers hinder their access to modern medicine, leaving individuals to rely mainly on natural remedies, such as medicinal plants. Their reliance on environmental resources and economic difficulties leads to regular utilization of these plants for health management.
Diversity of medicinal plants used by the community
The present study, which involved rigorous face-to-face interviews and individual discussions with local herbalists and community members, provides a comprehensive record of the conventional medicinal plants used by the community. The plants have been sorted according to the alphabetical order of their families, including 105 medicinal plants belonging to 53 families (Table 3). Moreover, the Tripuri people have a unique approach to preparing conventional medicine. They collect wild and rare plant species from the reserve forest areas, which belong primarily to 11 families such as Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Malvaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Araceae, Phyllanthaceae, Rubiaceae, and Rutaceae—as revealed in the present study. Some villagers recognize the need for modernization and have initiated their cultivation in home gardens. They have also been found to transmit such knowledge of traditional phytomedicine not only to their next of kin but also to neighbours and relatives, preserving conventional medicinal practices. This long-term vision appears to set them apart from other communities in northeast India’s Tripura state, underscoring their commitment to protecting the natural treasure of medicinal plants.
Table 3.
Diversity of medicinal plants utilized by the Tripuri community in the Unakoti district of Tripura, Northeast India
| Family | Scientific name with voucher specimen number | Local name | ICPC-3 category (use reports) | Plant part(s) used | Processing method(s) | Application route(s) | Total use reports | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tripuri | Bengali | |||||||
| Acanthaceae | Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees@01/ACF/2025 | Boner Kalomegh | Kalomegh | D; (155) Treatment of gut worms | Leaves | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water; decoction is prepared by adding leaves to cold water, bringing it to a boil, then simmering for 20 min and straining before use | Oral | 504 |
| R; (105) Cough | Leaves, stem | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water, and the dried stems are used for decoction preparation, and both are used to treat cough | Oral | |||||
| R; (77) Bronchitis | Leaves | Raw leaves are ground manually and consumed immediately with or without honey | Oral | |||||
| T; (45) Lipid disorder | Whole plant or parts of the plant | Decoction is prepared using the entire dried plant or its part(s) | Oral | |||||
| D; (41) Stomach function disorder | Leaves | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| D; (42) Diarrhoea | Leaves | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water; decoction is prepared by adding leaves to cold water, bringing it to a boil, then simmering for 20 min and straining before use | Oral | |||||
| S; (39) Skin infection | Leaves | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves by crushing them manually, warming them slightly, and applying them directly to the skin | Topical | |||||
| Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine 02/ACF/2025 | Kulechara | Gulamordhan | D; (89) Jaundice | Root | Dried root is used to prepare an infusion using hot water | Oral | 226 | |
| L; (61) Rheumatoid arthritis | Whole plant, Leaves | Sometimes, a small whole dried plant or raw leaves are used to prepare a decoction, and a poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied directly to the affected joints | Oral, topical | |||||
| U; (52) Diuretic | Leaves | Raw leaves are used for decoction preparation | Oral | |||||
| P; (24) Aphrodisiac | Whole plant | Raw whole plants can be crushed manually, strained through a fine cloth or sieve, and the extract can be taken with milk; an infusion is also prepared for the same purpose | Oral | |||||
| Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. 03/ACF/2025 | Sharamchala | Jagatmadan | L; (78) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaves, stem | Young leaves and stems are used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the affected joints | Topical | 429 | |
| D; (69) Stomach function disorder | Leaves | Raw leaves are used to prepare an infusion and are consumed in a lukewarm condition | Oral | |||||
| D; (55) Diarrhoea | Leaves | Raw or dried leaves are used to prepare an infusion and consumed in a lukewarm condition | Oral | |||||
| N; (62) Headache | Stem | Poultice is prepared using raw stems by crushing them manually, warming them slightly, and applying them directly to the skin | Topical | |||||
| R; (165) Cough | Leaves | Decoction is prepared by adding raw leaves to cold water, bringing it to a boil, then simmering for 10–15 min, and used with honey | Oral | |||||
| Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis (Roxb. ex Hardw.) Mabb. 04/ACF/2025 | Kufur basok | Lal basok | R; (89) Bronchitis | Flower, leaves | Raw flowers and leaves are used together or individually to prepare an infusion | Oral | 288 | |
| R; (72) Asthma | Leaves | Young leaves are used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the chest; in the case of elderly, an infusion is prepared and taken | Topical | |||||
| S; (65) Skin infection | Stem, leaves | Young leaves as well as stems are used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the infected area twice daily | Topical | |||||
| D; (55) Jaundice | Leaves | Raw leaves are used to prepare either a decoction or an infusion | Oral | |||||
| Amaranthaceae | Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze 05/ACF/2025 | Bishalloroni | Bishallokoronii | D; (89) Stomach infection | Young leaves, shoots | Juice is prepared from young leaves (if not available, then young shoots are used) and mixed with salt | Oral | 205 |
| R; (55) Cough | Young leaves, shoots | Raw leaves and/or young shoots are used to prepare either a decoction or an infusion, and most of the time, they are mixed with honey | Oral | |||||
| S; (61) Skin injury, wound | Leaves, whole plant | Young leaves or dried small whole plants are used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| Amaryllidaceae | Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng. (ACF-6) 06/ACF/2025 | Rasun billai | Bangagandina | D; (45) Stomach infection | Stem | Juice is prepared from young, fresh stem either manually or mechanically, and is then consumed directly | Oral | 146 |
| P; (52) Aphrodisiac | Stem | Juice is taken with honey or garlic | Oral | |||||
| S; (49) Skin infection, wound | Stem, flower | Young stem and/or flower is used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| Crinum asiaticum L. 07/ACF/2025 | Khumpui khum bubar | Sukhdarshan | L; (39) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaves | Young leaves are used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the affected joints | Topical | 63 | |
| S; (24) Skin infection | Leaves | Young leaves are used to prepare a poultice, which is then directly applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. 08/ACF/2025 | Tokharichon | Nagdamini | S; (19) Wound | Leaves | Young leaves are used to prepare poultice for applying directly to the wound, turmeric juice can also be added to it | Topical | 19 | |
| Annonaceae | Annona reticulata L. 09/ACF/2025 | Aajfol | Atafol | D; (45) Dysentery | Leaves, fruit | Raw leaves are used for infusion preparation and ripe fruits can be consumed directly to address the clinical condition | Oral | 88 |
| N; (11) Epilepsy | Fruit | Ripe fruits are consumed with honey or ginger | Oral | |||||
| S; (18) Wound | Leaves | Young leaves are used to make poultice and applied directly to the wound | Topical | |||||
| K; (14) Cardiac complaints | Fruit | Ripe fruits are taken directly | Oral | |||||
| Apiaceae | Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. 10/ACF/2025 | Samsatha | Thankuni | N; (29) Memory enhancement | Whole plant | Infusion is prepared using a young plant boiled in water | Oral | 89 |
| K; (44) Blood purifier | Whole plant or leaves | Infusion is prepared using a young plant or leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| K; (16) Reduced blood pressure | Whole plant | Infusion is prepared using a young plant boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| Apocynaceae | Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. 11/ACF/2025 | Akhan | Akondho gach | (121) L; Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaves and shoots | Young leaves and shoots are used to prepare a poultice that is applied directly to the affected joints | Topical | 251 |
| R; (75) Cough | Leaves | Young leaves are used to prepare a poultice, which is then applied directly to the chest | Topical | |||||
| R; (55) Bronchitis | Leaves, latex | Poultice is made from leaves and/or latex and is applied directly to the chest; particularly in the fringe villages of Uttar Unakoti Reserve Forest young leaves are heated and then applied topically to the chest for better management of bronchitis | Topical | |||||
| Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don 12/ACF/2025 | Khumboiragi | Nayan tara | T; (34) Diabetes type II | Leaves, flowers | Regardless of being dried or fresh, leaves were manually ground to obtain juice; an infusion is also prepared using dried leaves | Oral | 120 | |
| D; (51) Abdominal infection | Flowers and leaves | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water, and dried leaves are used for decoction preparation | Oral | |||||
| D; (23) Dysentery | Raw whole plant | Fresh juice is prepared from young, whole plants and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| S; (12) Wound | Raw whole plant or leaves | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and applied directly to the wound; sometimes, a paste made from fresh leaves is also used to heal the wound | Topical | |||||
| Cosmostigma cordatum (Poir.) M.R.Almeida 13/ACF/2025 | Antomul | Anantamul | D; (29) Jaundice | Flowers, fruits | Infusion involves boiling flowers in water, while fruits are utilized for making decoctions | Oral | 69 | |
| A; (21) Malaria | Young twigs | Pulp is crushed manually, and juice is obtained, which is taken orally to manage malaria symptoms | Oral | |||||
| G; (19) Menstrual pain | Stem, leaves | A crude extract is obtained from the stems and leaves and applied externally to the lower abdomen to alleviate pain; an infusion is made by boiling the leaves in water | Topical, oral | |||||
| Plumeria rubra L. 14/ACF/2025 | Gulachi | Gulaiech | K; (32) Chest pain | Flower, leaves | Infusion preparation involves boiling raw leaves in water, whereas decoction is prepared with flowers and consumed immediately | Oral | 80 | |
| S; (12) Wound, cut | Stem, leaves | Poultice is made from stems and young leaves, applied straight to the wound or cut | Topical | |||||
| S; (36) Skin infection | Roots, leaves, flowers, | Poultices can be made from roots, leaves, or flowers and are applied directly to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| Araceae | Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach 15/ACF/2025 | Moithu | Maan kochu | L; (25) Rheumatoid arthritis | Rhizome | Cooked as a vegetable, and a poultice is prepared using the rhizome and applied directly to the joints | Oral, topical | 76 |
| D; (51) Stomach infection | Rhizome, stem | Cooked as a vegetable | Oral | |||||
| Homalomena aromatica (Spreng.) Schott 16/ACF/2025 | Gandoroi | Ghandi kachu | A; (24) Body ache | Rhizome, stem | Poultices are made from stems and rhizomes and applied directly to the joints | Topical | 100 | |
| L; (45) Rheumatoid arthritis | Rhizome, stem | Cooked like a vegetable, it is eaten to manage inflammatory arthritis; poultices are made from the stems and rhizomes, which are applied directly to the joints when the condition is severe | Oral | |||||
| D; (31) Stomach infection | Rhizome, stem | Cooked as a vegetable | Oral | |||||
| Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott 17/ACF/2025 | Ghetkul | Ghat kachu | L; (43) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaves, stem | Poultice is made from raw leaves and stems and directly applied to the joints | Topical | 96 | |
| U; (21) Pain related to the kidney | Leaves | Leaves are utilized to prepare juice (and sometimes taken with a pinch of back salt) | Oral | |||||
| D; (32) Diarrhoea | Stem | Cooked as a vegetable and taken mostly with rice | Oral | |||||
| Arecaceae | Licuala spinosa Wurmb 18/ACF/2025 | Fan palm | Chata pata | D; (11) Stomach pain | Roots | Dried roots are chewed | Oral | 11 |
| Asparagaceae | Dracaena trifasciata (Prain) Mabb. 19/ACF/2025 | Amisakhitong | Ghora chakkor | N; (18) Anxiety | Rhizome | Infusion is prepared using rhizome boiled in water; also used for decoction preparation | Oral | 18 |
| Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop 20/ACF/2025 | Jongali piyaz | Bon piyaz | L; (45) Rheumatoid arthritis | Bulb | Poultice, infusion, and decoction can be prepared using the bulb | Topical, oral | 152 | |
| D; (31) Stomach function disorder | Bulb | Cooked as a vegetable, and sometimes a decoction is prepared using the bulb and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| K; (23) Chest pain | Bulb and leaves | Poultice is prepared using the bulb and raw leaves and applied to the chest | Topical | |||||
| R; (12) Asthma | Bulb | Infusion is prepared using bulbs boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| S; (41) Skin infection | Bulb | Poultice is prepared using bulbs and applied to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| Asphodelaceae | Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. 21/ACF/2025 | Elovera | Gheethokumari | S; (38) Wound | Pulp | Poultice is prepared using pulp and applied to the fresh wound | Topical | 104 |
| D; (23) Constipation | Pulp | Juice is prepared manually from the pulp and taken orally | Oral | |||||
| S; (43) Skin infection | Pulp | Poultice is prepared using pulp and applied to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| Aspleniaceae | Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. 22/ACF/2025 | Kenkhu | Dheki | L; (45) Rheumatoid arthritis | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a small young plant and applied to the affected joints | Topical | 195 |
| R; (21) Asthma | Whole plant | Infusion is made by boiling raw plants in water and then taken with drinking water directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (26) Dysentery | Whole plant | Decoction is prepared using a young plant and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (36) Diarrhea | Whole plant | Decoction is prepared using a young plant and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| S; (23) Wound | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a small young plant and applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| L; (44) Bone fracture | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a small young plant and is topically applied to the fracture | Topical | |||||
| Asteraceae | Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. 23/ACF/2025 | Usundhui | Gorokhbon | A; (28) Mouth ulcers | Flower | Poultice is prepared using a flower and applied to the mouth ulcer | Topical | 76 |
| R; (12) Sore throat | Flower, stem, leaves | Decoction is prepared using flowers, stems and leaves, and then heated and consumed immediately | Oral | |||||
| D; (36) Toothache | Flower, stem, leaves | Decoction preparation involves flowers, while infusion is made by boiling stems and raw leaves in water for direct consumption | Oral | |||||
| Ageratum conyzoides L. 24/ACF/2025 | Samnam | Nak ful | D; (43) Dysentery | Leaf | Decoction is prepared using raw leaves and consumed | Oral | 178 | |
| D; (36) Diarrhea | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| L, (48) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| A; (26) Malaria | Leaf, flower, stem | Decoction is prepared using fresh leaves and flowers; similarly, infusion is prepared using stems boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| S; (25) Skin infection | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using young plants and is applied topically to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce 25/ACF/2025 | Kukurmuta | Kukursanga | D; (24) Ulcers in intestine | Leaf, stem | Decoction is prepared using fresh leaves and stems and consumed with honey | Oral | 73 | |
| S; (37) Skin infection | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and topically applied to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| L; (12) Gum boils | Leaf, stem, and flowers | Poultice is prepared using young leaves, stems, and flowers, and topically applied with honey to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. 26/ACF/2025 | Maiuuit-uchondoi | Bhutbhairabi | L; (34) Rheumatoid arthritis | Flower, leaf | Poultice is prepared using young leaves and flowers and topically applied to the joint | Topical | 125 | |
| S; (37) Wound | Flower, leaf | Poultice is prepared using young leaves and flowers and topically applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| S; (54) Skin infection | Flower, leaf with honey | Poultice is prepared using young leaves and flowers and topically applied to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 27/ACF/2025 | Allencha | Bhringraj | U; (23) Blood in urine | Whole plant | Decoction and infusion are prepared using the young plant and consumed directly | Oral | 93 | |
| S; (33) Skin infection | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| K; (26) Chest pain | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and topically applied to the chest | Topical | |||||
| S; (11) Vitiligo | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using the young plant and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Gnaphalium pensylvanicum Will. 28/ACF/2025 | Dhoodu | Sheyal mutri | R; (22) Cough | Stem, leaf, flower | Decoction is prepared using raw leaves, stems, and flowers and consumed directly | Oral | 67 | |
| L; (45) Rheumatoid arthritis | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and topically applied to the joints | Tropical | |||||
| Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob.29/ACF/2025 | Andhui | Refugi | D; (32) Gastric ulcers | Leaf | Decoctions are prepared using young plants | Oral | 66 | |
| D; (22) Dysentery | Leaf | Decoction and infusion are prepared using raw leaves and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (12) Stomach function disorder | Leaf | Decoction and infusion are prepared using young leaves | Oral | |||||
| Mikania micrantha Kunth 30/ACF/2025 | Rabon lata | Chhagalbati | S; (28) Skin infection | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and topically applied to the infected area | Tropical | 107 | |
| S; (20) Wound | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using green leaves and topically applied to the wound | Tropical | |||||
| S; (12) Cough | Leaf, flower | Infusion, decoction are prepared using raw leaves and fresh flowers and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| L; (36) Rheumatoid arthritis | Whole plant, leaf | Poultice is prepared using young plants and fresh leaves and topically applied to the infected area | Tropical | |||||
| D; (11) Jaundice | Leaf | Infusion and decoction are prepared using fresh leaves and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| Balsaminaceae | Impatiens balsamina L. 31/ACF/2025 | Keruphul | Dopati | L; (25) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf, shoot | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and shoots and topically applied to the joint | Tropical | 106 |
| T; (12) Scurvy | Whole plant | Poultice is made from a young plant and applied topically to the gum | Tropical | |||||
| L; (45) Bone fracture | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and is topically applied to the fracture | Tropical | |||||
| D; (24) Dysentery | Leaf | Decoction is prepared using raw leaves and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Boraginaceae | Heliotropium indicum L. 32/ACF/2025 | Hatisura | Hatisur | S; (26) Wound | Whole plant, leaf | Poultice is prepared using young plants and fresh leaves and topically applied to the wound | Topical | 115 |
| L; (34) Fracture | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the fracture | Topical | |||||
| F; (13) Eye infection and inflammation | Leaf, flower, seed | Juice from freshly prepared leaves, flowers, and seeds is applied to the eyes | Topical | |||||
| G; (25) Menstrual disorder | Flower, seed | Juice is made from fresh flowers and seeds and enjoyed with honey | Oral | |||||
| U; (17) Urinary problem | Whole plant, leaf | Juice mixed with honey or with milk | Oral | |||||
| Bromeliaceae | Ananas comosus var. comosus 33/ACF/2025 | Aamthoi | Anaras | D; (34) Stomach infection | Stem, rhizome | Juice is made from stems, rhizomes, and seeds and is consumed | Oral | 77 |
| L; (43) Rheumatoid arthritis | Fruit | Fruits can be taken directly | Topical | |||||
| Calophyllaceae | Mesua ferrea L. 34/ACF/2025 | Nag khesor | Nageshwar | L; (48) Rheumatoid arthritis | Flower, seed, leaf | Juice is made from fresh flowers and seeds and consumed; poultice is made from raw leaves and applied to the joint | Oral, topical | 90 |
| R; (25) Asthma | Flower | Juice is prepared using fresh flowers and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (17) Dysentery | Flower, leaf | Juice is prepared using fresh flowers and raw leaves and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Combretaceae | Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. 35/ACF/2025 | Baheda | Bakhwla bwchwlwi | R; (49) Cough | Fruit, leaf | Decoctions are prepared using fresh fruits and raw leaves and directly consumed | Oral | 125 |
| D; (37) Dysentery | Fruit | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using fresh fruits and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (25) Liver disease | Fruit | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using fresh fruits and are directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| R; (14) Pharyngitis/tonsillitis | Fruit | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using fresh fruits, and are immediately consumed | Oral | |||||
| Terminalia chebula Retz. 36/ACF/2025 | Bakhwala | Haritoki | L; (35) Gum boils | Fruit, leaf | Decoction is prepared using raw leaves and fruits and consumed | Oral | 57 | |
| D; (22) Piles | Fruit | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using fresh fruits and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Convolvulaceae | Cuscuta reflexa Roxb 37/ACF/2025 | Sinjo lata | Sawrna lata | S; (33) Skin infection | Stem | Poultice is prepared using stems and applied to the affected area | Topical | 83 |
| A; (28) Body ache | Stem | Poultice is prepared using stems and applied to the skin | Topical | |||||
| R; (22) Cough | Stem | Poultice is prepared using stems and topically applied to the chest | Topical | |||||
| Distimake vitifolius (Burm.f.) Pisuttimarn & Petrongari 38/ACF/2025 | Pholobubar | Bonkapas | L; (33) Rheumatoid arthritis | Flower, leaf | Poultice is prepared using fresh flowers and raw leaves and applied to the affected joints | Topical | 33 | |
| Costaceae | Chamaecostus cuspidatus (Nees & Mart.) C.D.Specht & D.W.Stev. 39/ACF/2025 | Piasal | Jarul | T; (48) Diabetes type II | Stem, flower | Sap is obtained from the stem and consumed; flowers are sometimes crushed to get juice, which is then consumed | Oral | 48 |
| Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta 40/ACF/2025 | Mailomakothoma | Keu | R; (12) Asthma | Rhizome | Infusion is prepared by boiling the dried rhizomes | Oral | 49 | |
| R; (23) Bronchitis | Rhizome | Infusion is prepared by boiling the dried rhizomes | Oral | |||||
| D; (12) Gut worms | Stem | Sap is extracted from the stem, and raw stem is eaten occasionally | Oral | |||||
| A; (2) Sexual issue | Rhizome | Powder obtained from dried rhizomes is taken with lukewarm milk | Oral | |||||
| Crassulaceae | Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 41/ACF/2025 | Pathorkuchi | Kop pata | A; (11) Headache | Leaf | Juice made from leaves is consumed directly | Oral | 71 |
| S; (23) Wound | Leaf | Sap obtained from leaves is directly applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| F; (37) Eye infection | Leaf | Sap obtained from leaves used against eye infection | Topical | |||||
| Cucurbitaceae | Momordica charantia L. 42/ACF/2025 | Gagla | Korola | R; (28) Pneumonia | Fruit | Cooked as a vegetable | Oral | 143 |
| T; (36) Diabetes type II | Fruit | Cooked as a vegetable | Oral | |||||
| S; (14) Eczema | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the affected skin | Topical | |||||
| D; (36) Jaundice | Fruit, leaf | Infusion and decoction are prepared using raw leaves and fruits | Oral | |||||
| D; (29) Stomach function disorder | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed directly; fruits can also be cooked as a vegetable | Oral | |||||
| Dipterocarpaceae | Shorea robusta C.F.Gaertn 43/ACF/2025 | Sarai | Shal | G; (28) Menstrual bleeding | Bark, young leaf | Infusion and decoction are made from young leaves, though decoction is seldom used | Oral | 113 |
| D; (45) Stomach pain, discomfort | Young leaf | Juice is prepared from young leaves and mixed with honey | Oral | |||||
| F; (24) Eye infection | Leaf | Extract from young fresh leaves is used against eye infections | Oral | |||||
| S; (16) Wounds | Bark | Poultice is prepared using young barks | Oral, topical | |||||
| Euphorbiaceae | Euphorbia hirta L. 44/ACF/2025 | Asthama gach | Dubia | R; (50) Asthma | Flower, leaf | Infusion is taken with sugar and black salt | Oral | 177 |
| D; (34) Dysentery | Leaf | Infusion is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| D; (27) Jaundice | Flower, leaf | Decoction prepared from either flowers or leaves (sometimes taken with a pinch of salt) | Oral | |||||
| D; (39) Stomach function disorder(s) | Leaf | Infusion is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| G; (27) Infection in the reproductive organs | Leaf | Infusion or decoction is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| Ricinus communis L. 45/ACF/2025 | Latok | Verrenda | L; (14) Rheumatoid arthritis | Seed | Seeds are either ground by hand or with machinery to extract oil, which is then stored in a glass jar for later use; oil is usually applied directly to the affected joints (and sometimes a hot cloth is placed over the area after application to enhance warmth) | Topical | 67 | |
| G; (18) Menstrual pain | Seed, leaf | Seed oil or a poultice made from the leaves is applied to women’s lower abdomen to alleviate period cramps | Topical | |||||
| A; (15) Headache | Seed | Preparation process of seed oil is same as above; oil is applied directly to the forehead for pain relief | Topical | |||||
| A; (20) Backache | Seed | Process for preparing the seed oil is same as above; oil is applied directly to the affected body area for pain relief | Topical | |||||
| Fabaceae | Bauhinia acuminata L. 46/ACF/2025 | Sitakaya | Sweth Kanchan | R; (12) Cough | Young pod | An extract from the young pod is prepared either manually or mechanically, after which it is mixed with honey | Oral | 69 |
| R; (23) Asthma | Leaf, flower | A freshly prepared poultice made from leaves and flowers is applied to the chest | Topical | |||||
| D; (34) Diarrhoea | Leaf | Infusion is prepared from the leaves and taken orally | Oral | |||||
| Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth 47/ACF/2025 | Moimaiching | Arahor | T; (38) Diabetes type II | Seed | Crushed seeds are dissolved overnight, and then purified water is collected | Oral | 101 | |
| S (19) Wound | Leaf | Pastes of leaves are applied directly to the wound | Oral | |||||
| D; (29) Jaundice | Seed | Soup is prepared from edible seeds | Oral | |||||
| A; (15) Measles | Leaf | Juice prepared from leaves are taken orally | Oral | |||||
| Clitoria ternatea L. 48/ACF/2025 | Khum lahan | Aprajita | P; (20) Improve memorization power | Flower | Flower extract is made by dissolving flowers in water, and then taken orally | Oral | 40 | |
| S; (12) Boost skin quality | Flower | Flowers are crushed and dissolved in water after a period of 3 to 5 h of being mixed with honey | Oral | |||||
| T; (08) Reduce weight | Flower | Tea is prepared using flowers boiled in water without sugar | Oral | |||||
| Mimosa pudica L. 49/ACF/2025 | Khom sairenda | Lojjaboti | U; (19) Urogenital infection | Flower | Tea is prepared using flowers boiled in water without sugar | Oral | 95 | |
| D; (24) Dysentery | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| S; (18) Wound | Flower | Poultice is prepared using flowers and applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| D; (34) Diarrhoea | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| Senna alata (L.) Roxb. 50/ACF/2025 | Dadh pata | Dadud pata | A; (11) Malaria | Young pod | Cooked as a vegetable | Oral | 70 | |
| S; (28) Skin Infection | Flower, leaf | Poultice is prepared using flowers and leaves and applied to the infected skin | Topical | |||||
| T; (16) Diabetes type II | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (15) Worms | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby 51/ACF/2025 | Doktaraya | Min jiri | D; (32) Digestive system disorder(s) | Fruit, pod | Juice prepared from fruits and pods are mixed with water | Oral | 94 | |
| D; (16) Jaundice | Leaf, fruit, pod | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using leaves, fruits, and pods and then consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (18) Typhoid | Leaf, fruit, pod | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using leaves, fruits, and pods and then consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| G; (28) Menstrual disorder(s) | Pod, fruit | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using fruits and pods, and then consumed directly; sometimes poultice is also prepared using pods and fruits and topically applied to lower abdomen | Oral, topical | |||||
| Sesbania grandiflora (L.) poir 52/ACF/2025 | Monipuspha | Bokfol | D; (23) Stomach pain | Flower | Crude extract is prepared from fresh flowers and mixed with water prior to use | Oral | 80 | |
| D; (21) Diarrhoea | Flower, leaf | Crude extract is prepared with honey | Oral | |||||
| S; (18) Skin Infection | Flower, leaf | Poultice is prepared using flowers and raw leaves, and topically applied to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| A; (18) Malaria | Flower | Crude extract is prepared manually | Oral | |||||
| Gentianaceae | Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. 53/ACF/2025 | Silota | Chirota | A; (15) Malaria | Twig, leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually | Oral | 33 |
| D; (18) Jaundice | Twig, leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually | Oral | |||||
| Lamiaceae | Anisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. 54/ACF/2025 | Ajapad | Induparni | D, (25) Jaundice | Leaf | Infusion or juice is prepared from leaves | Oral | 79 |
| R; (20) Cough | Leaf | Juice from the leaves is mixed with honey | Oral | |||||
| D; (34) Digestive system disorder (s) | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually | Oral | |||||
| Callicarpa longifolia Lam 55/ACF/2025 | Teka-Tuki | Boner jaam | D; (75) Diarrhoea | Root | Decoction is prepared from fresh roots | Oral | 190 | |
| L; (65) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf, root | Poultice is prepared using leaves and roots and topically applied to the joints | Topical | |||||
| S; (50) Skin disease | Leaf, root | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and roots and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb. 56/ACF/2025 | Ghentu | Bamunhati | L; (78) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf, root | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and roots and topically applied to the affected area | Oral, topical | 220 | |
| D; (65) Dropsy | Leaf | Juice is prepared from young leaves | Oral | |||||
| L; (42) Gout | Root, stem | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and roots and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| T; (35) Diabetes type II | Leaf | Juice is prepared from young leaves | Oral | |||||
| Clerodendrum infortunatum L. 57/ACF/2025 | Chokhoima | Bhant | L; (65) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf, stem | Poultice is prepared using leaves and stems and topically applied to the joints | Topical | 278 | |
| D; (64) Laxative | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (57) Diabetes type II | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| A; (42) Malaria | Leaf | Leaves are used to prepare an infusion | Oral | |||||
| S; (48) Insect bite | Leaf, young stem | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and young stems and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| S; (02) Snake bite | Leaf, young stem | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and young stem and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link 58/ACF/2025 | Boner dandakalash | Donkolsh | R; (89) Asthma | Flower with honey | Extract prepared from flowers are mixed with honey | Oral | 164 | |
| S; (05) Snakebite | Leaf, flower | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and fresh flowers and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| S; (70) Scabies | Leaf, root, flower | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves, roots, and fresh flowers and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Leucas lavandulifolia Sm. 59/ACF/2025 | Dandakalash | Boro Donkolosh | R; (78) Asthma | Flower with honey | Extract prepared from flowers is mixed with honey | Oral | 188 | |
| S; (55) Psoriasis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| S; (54) skin disease | Flower, leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and fresh flowers and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| S; (01) Snakebite | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and is topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Mentha arvensis L. 60/ACF/2025 | Putiha | Pudina | R; (55) Cough | Leaf | Tea is prepared using fresh leaves boiled in water and consumed directly | Oral | 103 | |
| D; (48) Stomach issues | Leaf | Tea is prepared using leaves | Oral, | |||||
| Ocimum gratissimum L. 61/ACF/2025 | Kosom tulsi bulai | Ram tulsi | R; (85) Cough | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared with honey and ginger | Oral | 333 | |
| L; (71) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral, topical | |||||
| D; (63) Diarrhoea | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral | |||||
| B; (59) Anaemia | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral | |||||
| S; (55) Skin infection | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral, topical | |||||
| Ocimum tenuiflorum L. 62/ACF/2025 | Tulsi | Bishnu Tulsi | D; (12) Cancer | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral | 172 | |
| W; (65) Pregnancy terminator | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral | |||||
| U; (54) Kidney pain | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral | |||||
| D; (41) Jaundice | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually from leaves | Oral | |||||
| Premna bengalensis C.B.Clarke 63/ACF/2025 | Pisanti | Sakti Bordhok | B; (65) Immunity booster | Bark | Infusion is prepared from young barks | Oral | 155 | |
| D; (35) Stomach pain | Bark | Decoction and infusion prepared from barks | Oral | |||||
| S; (55) Wound healing | Bark, leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and barks and topically applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| Vitex negundo L. 64/ACF/2025 | Norshingdo | Nishida | S; (05) Tumour | Root, leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and topically applied to the tumour; sometimes infusion and decoction are prepared using roots and consumed directly | Topical, oral | 52 | |
| T; (29) Diabetes type II | Root | Decoction is prepared using roots and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| S; (18) Skin disease | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and topically applied to the affected area | Topical | |||||
| Lauraceae | Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) J.Presl 65/ACF/2025 | Dalchini | Dalauchin | D; (59) Diarrhoea | Bark | Infusion and decoction are prepared using barks and immediately consumed | Oral | 139 |
| L; (45) Rheumatoid arthritis | Dry leaf | Dry leaves are used to prepare infusion | Topical | |||||
| K; (35) Chest pain | Bark | Infusion and decoction are prepared using barks and immediately consumed | Oral | |||||
| Linderniaceae | Yamazakia viscosa (Hornem.) W.R.Barker, Y.S.Liang & Wannan 66/ACF/2025 | Guttela bulai | Chuto cherra | D; (78) Intestinal worms | Whole plant | Infusion and decoction are prepared from a young small plant | Oral | 162 |
| S; (49) Skin infection | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared from whole plant | Topical | |||||
| L; (35) Bone fracture | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using a young plant and topically applied to the fracture | Topical | |||||
| Lythraceae | Punica granatum L. 67/ACF/2025 | Anar/ Dalimba | Dalim | D; (104) Diarrhoea | Fruit | Freshly prepared juice from fruits is consumed | Oral | 138 |
| U; (15) Kidney stone | Fruit | Freshly prepared juice from fruits is consumed | Oral | |||||
| B; (19) Anaemia | Fruit | Freshly prepared juice from fruits is consumed | Oral | |||||
| Malvaceae | Abroma augustum (L.) L.f. 68/ACF/2025 | Ultakombol | Pisachkarpas | L; (205) Rheumatism | Root, leaf, flower | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves, flowers, roots, and consumed | Oral | 97 |
| U; (109) Uterine disorders | Root, seed | Decoction is prepared using roots and seeds | Oral | |||||
| A; (72) Headache | Root, leaf | A paste is prepared using fresh roots and leaves and is applied to the forehead | Topical | |||||
| T; (62) Diabetes type II | Flower | Infusion is prepared using fresh flowers and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Bombax ceiba L. 69/ACF/2025 | Bol Phantok Bubar | Shimul | D; (41) Cholera | Root, leaf, flower | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves, flowers and roots and consumed | Oral | 97 | |
| R; (31) Cough | Root, seed | Decoction is prepared using roots and seeds and consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| D; (25) Dysentery | Root, leaf, flower | Infusion and decoction are prepared using roots, raw leaves and flowers | Oral | |||||
| Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. 70/ACF/2025 | Joba-khum | Joba | K; (32) Hypertension | Flower | Poultice and crude extract are prepared manually from flowers | Topical | 91 | |
| R; (29) Asthma, bronchitis | Flower | Tea is prepared using fresh flowers boiled in water and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| U; (18) Urogenital tract infection | Flower | Tea is prepared using fresh flowers boiled in water and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| S; (12) Hair treatment | Flower | Oil prepared from flowers is applied directly to the hair | Topical, oral | |||||
| Urena lobata L. 71/ACF/2025 | Wakhunjo | Aramina gacch | A; (65) Malaria | Young leaf | Infusion is prepared using young leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | 213 | |
| L; (52) Rheumatoid arthritis | Young leaf | Infusion is prepared using young leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| T; (49) Diabetes type II | Young leaf | Infusion is prepared using young leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (47) Dysentery | Young leaf | Infusion is prepared using young leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Melastomataceae | Melastoma malabathricum L. 72/ACF/2025 | Khumtuk | Phutuki | S; (37) Cuts and wound | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually | Oral | 99 |
| D; (33) Toothache | Leaf | Crude extract is prepared manually and applied to the infected gum | Oral | |||||
| D; (29) Diarrhoea | Leaf | Infusion is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| Menispermaceae | Cyclea peltata (Burm.f.) Hook.f. & Thomson 73/ACF/2025 | Tokhi seleng | Patha | S; (69) Wound healing | Root, leaf | Poultice is prepared using roots and raw leaves and applied to the wound | Oral | 167 |
| D; (55) Digestive issues | Root, leaf | Infusion is prepared using young leaves and roots boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (43) Jaundice | Root, leaf | Decoction is prepared using roots and raw leaves | Oral | |||||
| Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson 74/ACF/2025 | Gilloy | Duksasandri | D; (101) Jaundice | Stem | Juice is prepared from stems, either manually or mechanically | Oral | 378 | |
| D; (92) Cancer | Root, stem | Dried powder from roots and stems is taken with water or directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| R: (81) Asthma | Stem, root | Stems and roots are used to prepare juice | Oral | |||||
| S; (05) Snake bite | Root | Poultice is prepared using roots and applied to the snake bite wound | Topical | |||||
| (55) F; Conjunctivitis | Stem | Juice is prepared from stem | Oral | |||||
| L; (44) Rheumatoid arthritis and bone fracture | Stem, root | Poultice is prepared from stems and roots | Topical | |||||
| Myrtaceae | Psidium guajava L. 75/ACF/2025 | Gouyaam | Sofri | D; (83) Diarrhoea | Fruit | Fresh juice obtained from fruits is directly consumed | Oral | 200 |
| S; (62) Wound | Fruit | Fresh juice obtained from fruits is directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| R; (55) Cough | Fruit | Fresh Juice obtained from fruits is directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| Nyctaginaceae | Boerhavia diffusa L. 76/ACF/2025 | Gadapushpa | Punarnava | L; (82) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the joint | Topical | 168 |
| R; (67) Asthma | Leaf | Infusion and decoction are prepared using raw leaves and directly consumed | Topical | |||||
| G; (19) Gynaecological problem | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves and consumed | Topical | |||||
| Oleaceae | Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. 77/ACF/2025 | Shephali | Parijaat | D; (42) Laxative | Leaf, root | Infusion and decoction are prepared using raw leaves and directly consumed | Oral | 110 |
| S; (39) Skin infection | Leaf, flower | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and flowers and applied to the infected area | Topical | |||||
| L; (29) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf, root | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and roots and applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| Jasminum officinale L. 78/ACF/2025 | Gando ful | Jeshmin | D; (68) Diabetes type II | Flower | Decoction is prepared using flowers and consumed directly | Oral | 183 | |
| L; (52) Pain reliever | Flower | Infusion is prepared using flowers boiled in water, and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (48) Diarrhoea | Flower | Infusion and decoction are prepared using fresh flowers and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| P; (15) Aphrodisiac | Flower, root | Infusion is prepared using flowers and roots, and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| Oxalidaceae | Averrhoa carambola L. 79/ACF/2025 | Kamoranga | Kamrenga | S; (52) Skin infection | Fruit | Ripe fruits are consumed directly | Oral | 162 |
| S; (43) skin tumour | Fruit, leaf | Poultice prepared from fruits and leaves are applied directly to the skin | Topical | |||||
| B; (38) Immunity booster | Fruit | Ripe fruits are consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| L; (29) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| Oxalis corniculata L. 80/ACF/2025 | Ata khum | Amrul | N; (82) Epilepsy | Leaf | Crude extract of leaves is sometimes taken with ginger | Oral | 172 | |
| N; (49) Anxiety | Leaf | Crude extract of leaves is taken orally | Oral | |||||
| L; (39) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| S; (02) Snake bite | Leaf | Poulticeis prepared using raw leaves and applied to the snake bite wound | Topical | |||||
| Phyllanthaceae | Bischofia javanica Blume 81/ACF/2025 | Thaicherram | Kain jol | R; (78) Chronic respiratory infection | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and is applied to the chest | Topical | 145 |
| R; (67) Tonsillitis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and is applied to the tonsil area | Topical | |||||
| Breynia androgyna (L.) Chakrab. & N.P.Balakr.82/ACF/2025 | Katuk | Olborai | S; (72) Skin disease, wound | Fruit | Cooked as vegetable | Oral | 116 | |
| S; (02) Tumour | Fruit | Ripe fruits are consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| S; (42) Small pox | Fruit | Ripe fruits are consumed directly | Oral | |||||
| Phyllanthus urinaria L. 83/ACF/2025 | Hazarmani | Bhui amla | A; (49) Malaria | Stem | Infusion is prepared from stem | Oral | 90 | |
| T; (22) Diabetes type II | Stem | Infusion is prepared from stem | Oral | |||||
| D; (19) Jaundice | Stem | Infusion is prepared from stem | Oral | |||||
| Piperaceae | Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth 84/ACF/2025 | Baner mocho | Luchi pata | F; (55) Conjunctivitis | Leaf | Juice prepared from leaves is applied directly to the eye | Topical | 221 |
| S; (68) Skin wound | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using raw leaves and applied to the wound | Topical | |||||
| R; (57) Asthma | Leaf | Infusion and decoction are prepared using raw leaves and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| L; (41) Rheumatoid arthritis | Whole plant | Poultice is prepared using young plants and applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| Piper longum L. 85/ACF/2025 | Pippali | Pipul | R; (135) Bronchitis | Leaf, fruit | Infusions and decoctions are prepared using raw leaves and fruits and then directly consumed | Oral | 435 | |
| R; (92) Cough and cold | Leaf, fruit | Infusion is prepared using leaves and fruits and consumed | Oral | |||||
| A; (82) Malaria | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (69) Jaundice | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (55) Dropsy | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Plumbaginaceae | Plumbago zeylanica L. 86/ACF/2025 | Agum-pata | Chitrak | L; (121) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | 186 |
| S; (65) Skin infection, wound | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Poaceae | Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 87/ACF/2025 | Durpa bwlai | Durva | D; (68) Constipation | Whole plant | Infusion is prepared using whole plant boiled in water | Oral | 222 |
| D; (65) Dropsy | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| G;(58) Male reproductive organ infection | Whole plant | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| T; (31) Diabetes type II | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| Thyrsostachys oliveri Gamble 88/ACF/2025 | Wabolai bwlai | Kanak Kaich | S; (101) Skin disease | Rhizome | Poultice is prepared using rhizomes and applied to the affected area | Topical | 150 | |
| G; (49) Menstrual Irregularities | Rhizome | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| Polygonaceae | Persicaria viscosa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross ex T.Mori 89/ACF/2025 | Biskhatali | Lal shak | G; (71) Anti-fertility | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | 120 |
| U; (49) Diuretic | Leaf | Decoction is prepared using young leaves | Oral | |||||
| Polypodiaceae | Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. 90/ACF/2025 | Bandor sola | Mukra latha | D; (37) Jaundice | Rhizome | Dried rhizomes are used for preparation of infusion | Oral | 102 |
| D; (29) Typhoid | Rhizome | Dried or fresh rhizomes are used for the preparation of infusion | Oral | |||||
| T; (19) Diabetes type II | Rhizome | Dried or fresh rhizomes are used for the preparation of decoction | Oral | |||||
| R; (17) Sore throat | Rhizome | Extract of rhizomes taken with hot water along with salt | Oral | |||||
| Pontederiaceae | Pontederia vaginalis Burm.f. 91/ACF/2025 | Chichiri | Chotonokha | D; (92) Digestive disorder(s) | Leaf, stem | Leaves and young stems are used to prepare decoction | Oral | 321 |
| D; (86) Jaundice | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water | Oral | |||||
| R; (78) Cold and Cough | Leaf, stem | Leaves and stems are used to prepare infusion | Oral | |||||
| R; (65) Asthma | Inflorescence | Fresh inflorescence is used for the preparation of infusion | Oral | |||||
| Portulacaceae | Portulaca oleracea L. 92/ACF/2025 | Dalok | Nonia | A; (84) Muscle pain, body ache | Stem, leaf, and flower | Infusion and decoction are prepared using stems, leaves, and flowers, and then directly consumed | Oral | 164 |
| L; (45) Rheumatoid arthritis | Stem | Infusion is prepared using stems boiled in water and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| U; (35) Diuretic | Leaf, flower | Decoction is prepared using leaves and flowers | Oral | |||||
| Rubiaceae | Mitragyna speciose 93/ACF/2025 | Gulikadam | Dharakadam | D; (42) Diarrhoea | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using fresh leaves boiled in water and directly consumed | Oral | 104 |
| R; (34) Cough | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water and directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| L; (28) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using leaves and applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| Paederia foetida L. 94/ACF/2025 | Gadhal | Mus buduk | L; (31) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Poultice is made using leaves | Topical, oral | 61 | |
| D; (12) Piles | Flower | Flower juice is taken with honey | Oral | |||||
| D; (18) Diarrhoea | Leaf | Decoction is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| Discospermum sphaerocarpum Dalzell ex Hook.f 95/ACF/2025 | Jongli coffee | Boner guta | D; (39) Diabetes type II | Leaf, bark | Leaves and barks are used for making infusion | Oral | 105 | |
| K; (47) Blood pressure | Bark, leaf | Bark- and leaf extract are applied directly to the centre of the head for absorption | Topical | |||||
| L; (19) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Leaves are used to prepare poultice, which is then applied to the joint | Topical | |||||
| Rutaceae | Citrus assamensis R.M.Dutta & Bhattacharya 96/ACF/2025 | Jami motom | Asami lebu | L; (41) Rheumatoid arthritis | Fruit | Juice of fruits are consumed with water, salt, and sugar | Oral | 62 |
| G; (21) Breast cancer | Fruit | Juice of fruits are consumed with water, salt, and sugar | Oral | |||||
| Clausena excavata Burm.f. 97/ACF/2025 | Tokhiceleng | Agni jaal | A; (19) Malaria | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using leaves boiled in water and directly consumed | Oral | 80 | |
| D; (36) Dysentery | Leaf | Decoction is prepared from young leaves | Oral | |||||
| D; (25) Abdominal pain | Leaf | Infusion is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| Murraya intermedia (M.Roem.) Mabb. 98/ACF/2025 | Kamini | Kamla jui | D; (31) Dysentery | Flower | Flower extract is used with cold water | Oral | 71 | |
| N; (19) Dizziness | Leaf | Juice prepared from young leaves is sometimes used with ginger | Oral | |||||
| R; (21) Cold and cough | Leaf | Juice from leaves is taken with honey | Oral | |||||
| Sapindaceae | Cardiospermum halicacabum L. 99/ACF/2025 | Dokthaitop | Lataphatkari | L; (55) Rheumatoid arthritis | Fruit, leaf | Poultice is prepared from fruits and leaves | Topical | 194 |
| S; (79) Skin-related disease | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using fresh leaves and topically applied to skin disease | Oral | |||||
| D; (31) Dropsy | Stem | Sap of young stems is taken | Oral | |||||
| D; (29) Digestive disorder | Fruit | Directly consumed | Oral | |||||
| Saururaceae | Houttuynia cordata Thunb. 100/ACF/2025 | Tangapata | Buk pata | A; (35) Body pain | Young shoot, leaf | Infusion is prepared from young shoots and leaves | Oral | 155 |
| L; (37) Rheumatoid arthritis | Young shoot, leaf | Infusion is prepared from young shoots and leaves | Oral | |||||
| R; (48) Pneumonia | Leaf | Decoction is prepared from leaves | Oral | |||||
| D; (35) Digestive disorder(s) | Leaf | Infusion and decoction are prepared using fresh leaves and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Solanaceae | Datura metel L.101/ACF/2025 | Dotara | Dudra | R; (69) Bronchitis | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | 238 |
| K; (45) Chest pain | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| S; (69) Skin infection | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| D; (55) Diarrhoea | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Talinaceae | Talinum fruticosum (L.) Juss. 102/ACF/2025 | Brahmi sak | Malancha | D; (32) Dropsy | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | 157 |
| T; (63) Diabetes type II | Leaf | Infusion and decoction are prepared using leaves | Oral | |||||
| D; (23) Digestive system disorder(s) | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using fresh leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| A; (39) Measles | Leaf | Infusion is prepared using raw leaves boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| Urticaceae | Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd 103/ACF/2025 | Benchi | Lal guta gacch | S; (49) Skin infection, scabies | Fruit, leaf | Poultice is prepared using fruits and leaves and applied to the infected area | Topical | 81 |
| L; (32) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Fresh paste is prepared using young leaves and directly applied to the affected joints | Topical | |||||
| Verbenaceae | Lantana camara L. 104/ACF/2025 | Kothoini khom | Putush | A; (79) Influenza/fever | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | 251 |
| R; (59) Cough | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| A; (41) Malaria | Fruit | Infusion is prepared using fruits boiled in water and consumed | Oral | |||||
| S; (33) Wound healing | Leaf | Poultice is prepared using either dried leaves or fresh leaves and applied to the affected area | Oral | |||||
| L; (39) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf | Fresh paste is prepared using young leaves and directly applied to the affected joints | Oral | |||||
| Zingiberaceae | Zingiber officinale Roscoe 105/ACF/2025 | Haiching | Aadha | L; (51) Rheumatoid arthritis | Leaf, rhizome | Fresh leaves are used to prepare infusion, while rhizomes are used to prepare decoction | Oral | 551 |
| R; (189) Cough and cold | Leaf, rhizome | Fresh leaves are used to prepare infusion, while rhizomes are used to prepare decoction | Oral | |||||
| R; (129) Sore throat | Leaf, rhizome | Fresh leaves are used to prepare infusion, while rhizomes are used to prepare decoction (ginger can be added to the preparations along with a pinch of salt) | Oral | |||||
| D; (110) Digestive issues | Rhizome | Fresh rhizomes are boiled in water for 25 to 30 min to prepare infusion; alternatively, powder obtained from rhizomes is used | Oral | |||||
| D; (72) Constipation | Rhizome | Fresh rhizomes are boiled in water for 25 to 30 min to prepare infusion, and preferably taken at night before going to bed | Oral | |||||
Novelty of the study and cross-cultural comparison
This study analyses 105 plant species and relates them with 27 relevant published studies from various regions of India. Emphasis is placed on representative research, especially from less-represented areas or communities, to provide a better context for the uniqueness of the present findings (Table 4). This comparative analysis enables an assessment of the disparities in medicinal plant species utilized across different geographical areas in India, using the Jaccard Index (JI). The observed JI values range from 1.15 to 15.84 (Table 4). The highest JI value of 15.84 was recorded in Barpeta district, Assam, followed by Cooch Behar district, West Bengal (JI = 14.15), Dindigul, Tamil Nadu (JI = 11.93), Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats (JI = 11.80), and Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu (JI = 10.65). The considerable similarity noted in Barpeta, Assam, may be attributed to its geographical characteristics and the analogous vegetation in both locales, with 19 plant species identified as common to both. Cooch Behar, located in West Bengal and Tripura, shares similar climatic conditions, characterized by considerable rainfall, wet deciduous to semi-evergreen forests, and subtropical to tropical temperatures. Ethnomedicinal knowledge is primarily transmitted orally in both Cooch Behar and Tripura, maintaining customary plant usage patterns across generations and geographical areas, particularly among linguistically or culturally related populations. Additionally, the Tirunelveli hills and Kanyakumari share many similarities with the Tripuri community of Tripura regarding the use of medicinal plants, as suggested by the JI values. These similarities could be due to comparable ecological conditions, the availability of plants, common health concerns, their needs, and their distinct yet converging traditional healing practices. The minimum JI for the Gingee hills in Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India (JI = 1.15), was determined, revealing only three common plants due to its semi-arid to dry sub-humid climate. In contrast, Tripura has a variety of floristic compositions that contribute to the presence and use of local medicinal plant species. On the other hand, the Gingee hills are located in the Tamil Nadu region of the Eastern Ghats, known for their arid and biologically diverse forest ecosystems. Furthermore, the Malayali tribes that dominate the Gingee hills have distinct medicinal systems and practices, which foster similarity among the populations.
Table 4.
Cross-cultural comparison of selected studies from India
| Location of the study area | Ethnic group(s) | Year | Number of taxa reported | Number of taxa having similar use | Number of taxa having dissimilar use | Number of taxa common in both the study areas | Number of taxa reported in the allied study area | Number of taxa reported in the study area | % of similar use | % of dissimilar use | Jaccard index | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Khetawas, Jhajjar district, Haryana | Saperas/Nath community | 2010 | 57 | 3 | 5 | 8 | 49 | 97 | 5.26 | 8.77 | 5.79 | [23] |
| Thoduhills, Kerala, | Kani tribe | 2014 | 35 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 31 | 101 | 5.71 | 5.71 | 3.12 | [24] |
| Tripura | Reang tribe | 2014 | 125 | 4 | 13 | 17 | 108 | 88 | 3.2 | 10.4 | 9.49 | [25] |
| Dindigul district,Tamil N | Inhabitants of Thoppampatti village | 2014 | 138 | 7 | 14 | 21 | 115 | 82 | 5.79 | 10.86 | 11.93 | [26] |
| Uttarakhand | Banraji community | 2018 | 70 | 2 | 7 | 9 | 58 | 93 | 2.85 | 14.28 | 6.33 | [27] |
| Arunachal Pradesh | Abotani tribe | 2019 | 45 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 42 | 102 | 4.44 | 2.22 | 2.12 | [28] |
| Guna district, Madhya Pradesh | Bhil, Gond, and Sahariya tribal community | 2020 | 30 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 28 | 103 | 3.33 | 3.33 | 1.55 | [29] |
| Kanyakumari Forest Division, Tamil Nadu | Kani tribe | 2020 | 56 | 3 | 10 | 13 | 43 | 92 | 5.35 | 17.87 | 10.65 | [30] |
| Kupwara, Jammu and Kashmir | Native people of the Kashmir Himalayas | 2021 | 29 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 27 | 103 | 0 | 6.89 | 1.56 | [31] |
| Vindhyan highlands, Uttar Pradesh | Baiga, Kharwar, and Gond tribal | 2021 | 95 | 6 | 9 | 15 | 80 | 90 | 6.31 | 9.47 | 9.67 | [32] |
| Wardha district, Maharashtra | Karanja (Ghadge) | 2021 | 65 | 5 | 4 | 9 | 56 | 96 | 7.69 | 6.15 | 6.29 | [33] |
| Pauri district, Uttarakhand | Inhabitants of the Pauri district | 2021 | 236 | 5 | 13 | 18 | 218 | 87 | 2.11 | 5.50 | 6.27 | [34] |
| Kangra, Himachal Pradesh | Gaddi Tribal | 2022 | 20 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 17 | 102 | 0 | 15 | 2.58 | [35] |
| Yangoupokpi Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Manipur | Thadou, Meitei, and Maring communities | 2022 | 108 | 1 | 9 | 10 | 98 | 95 | 0.92 | 8.33 | 5.46 | [36] |
| Barpeta district, Assam | Inhabitants of Barpeta district | 2023 | 50 | 5 | 11 | 16 | 31 | 86 | 10 | 28 | 15.84 | [37] |
| Pakyong subdivision of East Sikkim | Tribal inhabitants of Pakyong | 2023 | 60 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 54 | 99 | 5 | 5 | 4.08 | [38] |
| Gingee hills, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu | Kuravas and Irulas | 2015 | 163 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 160 | 102 | 0.61 | 1.22 | 1.15 | [39] |
| Tirunelveli hills, Western Ghats | Kani tribe | 2011 | 90 | 3 | 14 | 17 | 73 | 88 | 3.33 | 15.55 | 11.80 | [40] |
| Chitrakoot district, Madhya Pradesh | Mawasi tribe | 2016 | 32 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 26 | 99 | 3.12 | 15.62 | 5.04 | [41] |
| Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, southern Western Ghats | Irula Tribes | 2013 | 28 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 26 | 103 | 3.57 | 3.57 | 1.57 | [42] |
| Tripura | Chakma | 2014 | 20 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 103 | 0 | 10.00 | 1.68 | [43] |
| Cooch Behar district, West Bengal | Native tribes of the Cooch Behar district | 2014 | 46 | 4 | 11 | 15 | 31 | 90 | 8.69 | 23.91 | 14.15 | [44] |
| Bargarh district, Western Odisha | Binjhal tribes | 2021 | 28 | 1 | 6 | 7 | 21 | 98 | 3.57 | 21.42 | 6.25 | [45] |
| Champhai district, Mizoram | Mizo tribes | 2022 | 93 | 11 | 4 | 15 | 78 | 90 | 11.82 | 4.30 | 9.80 | [46] |
| Keonjhar district, Odisha | Tribal of Keonjhar district | 2012 | 24 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 22 | 103 | 0 | 8.33 | 1.62 | [47] |
| Arunachal Prade | Monpa ethnic group | 2011 | 50 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 42 | 97 | 8 | 8.00 | 6.10 | [48] |
| Madhya Prad | Tribes of Datia | 2017 | 35 | 4 | 3 | 7 | 28 | 98 | 11.42 | 8.57 | 5.88 | [49] |
The present study has explored how the Tripuri community interprets the similarities and differences in the use of medicinal plants, aiming to establish cross-cultural commonalities and distinctions among the various communities concerning the utilization of medicinal plants. Compared to the Saperas/Nath community of Khetawas, the Saperas/Nath community shares eight plant species with the Tripuri community. Three species have similar uses, while five have different utilities. Plants like Aloe vera, Cuscuta reflexa, and Datura metel exhibit shared uses among both communities. In contrast, Mesua ferrea, Mimosa pudica, Peperomia pellucida, Punica granatum, and Tinospora cordifolia are utilized differently by the Saperas/Nath community [23]. Examining how Saperas/Nath and Tripuri communities interact with these shared species uncovers notable similarities and differences in their ethnobotanical views. The three plants with common uses highlight a shared understanding of specific plant qualities, underscoring a collective appreciation for their medicinal or practical benefits. Conversely, the five species with distinct applications illustrate the unique cultural and ecological influences that define each community’s relationship with nature. In contrast, the Kani tribes use Clerodendrum infortunatum to relieve itching, while Clitoria ternatea is utilized for wound healing [24]. Meanwhile, the Tripuri tribe employs Clerodendrum infortunatum to manage rheumatoid arthritis and constipation and treat type II diabetes, malaria, insect bites, and snake bites. They also use Clitoria ternatea for diabetes and jaundice, but they additionally apply it to aid in weight loss, enhance skin radiance, and improve memory retention. The Kani and Tripuri tribes utilize these plants in notably distinct ways due to their unique cultural perspectives and local health priorities. The Kani approach is a practical healing method rooted in personal medicinal knowledge, focusing on acute, visible symptoms such as itching and wound healing. In contrast, the Tripuri use these plants to address broader health issues and enhance overall well-being, targeting conditions like diabetes, memory loss, and skin radiance. This reflects a metaphorical and holistic view of health that encompasses mental, physical, and aesthetic dimensions. These variations highlight how belief systems and cultural interpretations impact indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants. The Reang community in Tripura employs four specific medicinal plants, akin to the Tripuri community: Andrographis paniculata, Ageratum conyzoides, Senna alata, and Peperomia pellucida. Additionally, both communities utilize a broader spectrum of plants, including Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus, Homalomena aromatica, Blumea lanceolaria, Eclipta prostrata, Mikania cordata, Cuscuta reflexa, Kalanchoe pinnata, Euphorbia hirta, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Urena lobata, Plumbago zeylanica, and Lantana camara, but have distinct utility [25]. Despite their geographical proximity within the state, the two communities employ different approaches to utilizing these medicinal plant species, reflecting their particular cultural and spiritual frameworks. The Reang community's practices are rooted in animistic and shamanic beliefs. In contrast, Hinduism and Ayurvedic principles influence the Tripuri community's methodologies, emphasizing healing through the attainment of internal equilibrium, overall wellness, and enhancement of health outcomes. The residents of Thoppampatti village in Tamil Nadu and the Tripuri tribe utilize twenty-one plant species: seven for the same purposes (Andrographis paniculata, Calotropis gigantea, Catharanthus roseus, Cajanus cajan, Mentha arvensis, Cyclea peltata, and Piper longum) and fourteen in diverse ways (Plumeria rubra, Momordica charantia, Ricinus communis, Clitoria ternatea, Leucas aspera, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Bombax ceiba, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Psidium guajava, Boerhavia diffusa, Cynodon dactylon, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Datura metel, and Lantana camara). This diversity underscores that the medicinal uses of plants are influenced by their pharmacological properties, as well as cultural, geographical, and epistemological factors. Frequently shared uses reflect the observable effects of these plants, whereas the variations point to specific health beliefs, spiritual customs, common local ailments, and the transmission of traditional knowledge within each community that shape their understanding and use of these plants. Conversely, the Banraji community of Uttarakhand exhibits similarities with the Tripuri tribe in utilizing the plants Ricinus communis and Tinospora cordifolia. However, they demonstrate unique applications for Aloe vera, Boerhavia diffusa, Calotropis gigantea, Euphorbia hirta, Mentha arvensis, Oxalis corniculata, and Terminalia chebula. The two communities differ culturally and geographically, yet they utilize Ricinus communis and Tinospora cordifolia, underscoring a common acknowledgement of these plants' extensive therapeutic benefits for inflammation, fever, and jaundice. In contrast, the varying uses of seven species indicate different cultural interpretations shaped by local diseases and beliefs. These differences reflect how each society's disease prevalence, cultural belief, environmental interactions, and practical applications affect their ethnobotanical knowledge. The Abotani tribe in Arunachal [26] and the Sahariya tribe in Madhya Pradesh [27] share three and two taxa, respectively, that align with those found in the Tripuri tribal medicine system. The smaller number of taxa indicates the geographical and climatic differences between the three communities, leading to distinct floral diversity and uniqueness. The Kani tribe in Kanyakumari shares thirteen plant species with the Tripuri tribe. Three species, Ricinus communis, Piper longum, and Ocimum gratissimum, are used similarly. The remaining ten species, which have distinct uses, include Cardiospermum halicacabum, Ananas comosus, Andrographis paniculata, Centella asiatica, Clitoria ternatea, Euphorbia hirta, Leucas aspera, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Tinospora cordifolia, and Vitex negundo [30]. The connections between humans and plants are widespread and deeply embedded in culture, illustrated by the ethnobotanical similarities between the Kani and Tripuri tribes. These variations highlight how each tribe's distinct cultural perspective influences their understanding of nature, while their shared use of specific plants underscores a recognition of biological effectiveness that surpasses cultural differences. The Native communities in the Kashmir Himalayas share just two common taxa (Mentha arvensis and Cynodon dactylon). This indicates varying applications among the Tripuri community, highlighting cultural differences driven by climate and local requirements. Since Kashmir is situated at a high altitude and experiences colder temperatures than Tripura, it shows a disparity in floral growth and the utilization of specific plants for particular illnesses. The Baiga, Kharwar, and Gond tribes from the Vindhyan highlands of Uttar Pradesh share fifteen taxa with the Tripuri tribes. Among these, six species—Bombax ceiba, Catharanthus roseus, Mimosa pudica, Plumbago zeylanica, Terminalia chebula, and Zingiber officinale—are used similarly, while nine species–Andrographis paniculata, Boerhavia diffusa, Clitoria ternatea, Lantana camara, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Oxalis corniculata, Shorea robusta, Terminalia bellirica, and Tinospora cordifolia—serve different purposes [32]. The 15 plant species employed by the Tripuri tribes of Tripura and the Baiga, Kharwar, and Gond tribes from the Vindhyan highlands represent a well-established pan-Indian ethnobotanical knowledge system. These tribes utilize these plants in diverse ways, largely due to differences in their oral traditions, local environmental conditions, cultural beliefs, and specific health requirements. Therefore, the varied applications of these species emerge from each tribe's distinct interpretation and utilization of plants, which are influenced by their respective environments and healing methodologies. The Karanja community of Wardha district, Maharashtra, India, shares nine plant species in common with the Tripuri tribes, of which Aloe vera, Andrographis paniculata, Calotropis gigantea, Cuscuta reflexa, and Vitex negundo have similar uses. At the same time, the Karanja community utilizes Cynodon dactylon, Kalanchoe pinnata, Mimosa pudica, and Ricinus communis in different ways [33]. Such similar utilization reflects potential medicinal benefits, while local beliefs, needs, and cultural identity shape others. This is evident in the ethnobotanical similarities between the Tripuri and Karanja populations, showcasing the rich knowledge and diverse interpretations present in India's traditional medicinal system. Inhabitants of Pauri district share eighteen plant taxa with the Tripuri tribe, including five species: Aloe vera, Boerhavia diffusa, Centella asiatica, Euphorbia hirta, and Mentha arvensis, which serve similar purposes. The other thirteen species—Mimosa pudica, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Plumbago zeylanica, Portulaca oleracea, Punica granatum, Swertia chirayita, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, and Vitex negundo—have varied uses [32]. This reflects the local health priorities and demonstrates how communities uniquely utilize medicinal plants. The Gaddi tribal community in Himachal Pradesh shares three common plant taxa with the Tripuri tribe; however, their applications vary. This highlights that both communities maintain unique traditional uses for medicinal plants, influenced by their tradition, healing practices, and cultural values. The Thadou, Meitei, and Maring communities in Manipur have ten plant taxa in common with the Tripuri tribes. While one species (Centella asiatica) is used similarly by both communities, the other nine (Bischofia javanica, Euphorbia hirta, Leucas aspera, Oxalis corniculata, Paederia foetida, Phyllanthus urinaria, Portulaca oleracea, Terminalia chebula, and Vitex negundo) [36] are utilized differently due to the unique traditions and cultures of the Manipur communities, which highlight their distinct approaches to medicinal plant use. On the other hand, Inhabitants of Barpeta district, Assam, have five plant species, including Ananas comosus, Cajanus cajan, Mikania micrantha, Ricinus communis, and Tinospora cordifolia, which are utilized similarly, while Aloe vera, Centella asiatica, Eclipta prostrata, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Houttuynia cordata, Mimosa pudica, Ocimum gratissimum, Oxalis corniculata, Paederia foetida, Psidium guajava, and Vitex negundo have dissimilar utilization [37]. These two communities demonstrate that ethnobotanical overlap and distinct utilization of plant species reflect cultural adaptation shaped by the local inhabitants' unique experiences, beliefs, and needs. This emphasizes the diverse expressions of traditional knowledge, even among neighbouring groups.
The tribal people of Pakyong, Sikkim, have six plant species in common with the Tripuri community. Among these, they share three similar species—Aloe vera, Bombax ceiba, and Centella asiatica—and utilize three distinct ones: Ananas comosus, Cynodon dactylon, and Cuscuta reflexa [38]. These species demonstrate a combination of common functional insights and distinct cultural adaptations shaped by geography, traditions, and ecological experiences. The Kuravas and Irulas of the Gingee hills in Tamil Nadu share three plant species with the Tripuri community. Among these, only Cardiospermum halicacabum serves similar purposes, while Clitoria ternatea and Plumbago zeylanica lack comparable uses [39]. This suggests that geographical separation plays a role, as the medicinal applications of plants are deeply rooted in the community's cultural beliefs and the prevalent diseases specific to that area. The Kani tribes of the Tirunelveli hills in the Western Ghats share seventeen plant species with the Tripuri community, of which only three have similar uses: Cardiospermum halicacabum, Centella asiatica, and Ricinus communis. In contrast, Aloe vera, Clitoria ternatea, Cynodon dactylon, Datura metel, Euphorbia hirta, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hygrophila auriculata, Leucas aspera, Mimosa pudica, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Punica granatum, Sesbania grandiflora, Terminalia chebula, and Vitex negundo do not share similar uses with the Tripuri community [40]. The prevalence of plant species can be linked to tropical and monsoon climates; however, communities in these two biodiversity hotspots face geographical differences that hinder the sharing of medicinal plants’ knowledge. As a result, each community has developed different applications for the same medicinal plants, tailored to the specific needs of its unique environment. The Mawasi tribes in the Chitrakoot district of Madhya Pradesh share six plant species, among which only Centella asiatica serves a similar purpose. In contrast, Bombax ceiba, Cynodon dactylon, Euphorbia hirta, Terminalia chebula, and Vitex negundo have distinct uses [41]. Conversely, the Irula tribes in the Nilgiri biosphere of the Western Ghats possess just two species in common: Andrographis paniculata, which serves a similar purpose, and Drynaria quercifolia, with a different function. The Chakma community in Tripura shares only two species of medicinal plants (Centella asiatica and Plumeria rubra) in common with the Tripuri community. However, there is a notable lack of similarity in the utilization of these species, indicating that community beliefs play a significant role in the application of medicinal plants for managing ailments, despite geographical proximity. This suggests that a comparative study of the traditional medicinal systems within the same geographical region may reveal divergent applications of medicinal plants for addressing similar types of ailments. The tribal inhabitants of Cooch Behar, West Bengal, share fifteen plant species that serve four similar uses and eleven distinct applications compared to the Tripuri community's medicinal system. Species such as Cajanus cajan, Calotropis gigantea, Heliotropium indicum, and Ricinus communis exhibit similarities in utilization with the Tripuri community. At the same time, Ageratum conyzoides, Andrographis paniculata, Centella asiatica, Eclipta prostrata, Euphorbia hirta, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Ocimum gratissimum, Plumbago zeylanica, Psidium guajava, Sesbania grandiflora, and Vitex negundo have distinct applications [44]. The Binjhal tribes in Bargarh district, Odisha, rely on a single species (Ricinus communis) for their uses, which aligns with the practices of the Tripuri community. In contrast, they also utilize Aloe vera, Boerhavia diffusa, Bombax ceiba, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Terminalia bellirica, and Vitex negundo; however, the utilization of these plants differs from that of the Tripuri community, reflecting the marked indigenous healing practices of the Binjhal tribes [45]. The Mizo tribes of Champai area, Mizoram, share a significant botanical heritage with the Tripuri tribes, identified by the common presence of fifteen plant species. Of these, eleven exhibit similar applications in traditional practices, which include notable species such as Aloe vera, Cajanus cajan, Catharanthus roseus, Chromolaena odorata, Mentha arvensis, Mesua ferrea, Mikania micrantha, Mimosa pudica, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum, and Zingiber officinale. In contrast, four additional species, namely Ananas comosus, Bischofia javanica, Centella asiatica, and Houttuynia cordata, are identified, though their utilization appears to diverge from the majority [46]. This observation suggests a substantial intercultural exchange of medicinal plants, likely attributed to historical migrations and cross-border interactions between these neighbouring provinces. Such exchanges highlight the dynamic interplay of culture and botany in shaping traditional medicinal practices within the region. In contrast, the Tribes of Keonjhar in Orissa have only two species in common, Terminalia chebula and Shorea robusta, each fulfilling a unique role [47]. Meanwhile, the Monpa tribes of Arunachal Pradesh share eight species, categorized into four with similar uses (Momordica charantia, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum, and Zingiber officinale) and four others (Ageratum conyzoides, Centella asiatica, Houttuynia cordata, and Leucas aspera) with different applications [48]. Lastly, the tribes of Datia in Madhya Pradesh have seven common species, consisting of four (Ageratum conyzoides, Centella asiatica, Lantana camara, and Psidium guajava) with similar uses, and three (Clitoria ternatea, Oxalis corniculata, and Tinospora cordifolia) with differing applications [49].
Following a comparison of the findings of the current study with 27 selected published reports, it has been observed that 42 plants have rarely been documented for treating human ailments within the examined ethnobotanical literature: Jusitical gendarussa, Alternanthera brasiliana, Allium tuberosum, Crinum asiaticum, Hymenocallis littoralis, Cosmonstigma cordatum, Alocasia indica, Typhonium trilobatum, Licuala spinosa, Dracaena trifasciata, Drimia indica, Diplazium esculentum, Acmella uliginosa, Gnaphalium pensylvanicum, Impatiens balsamina, Distimake vitifolius, Chamaecostus cuspidatus, Hellenia speciosa, Bauhinia acuminata, Senna siamea, Anisochilus carnosus, Callicarpa longifolia, Clerodendrum chinense, Leucas lavandulifolia, Premna bengalensis, Yamazakia viscosa, Abroma augustum, Melastoma malabathricum, Jasminum officinale, Averrhoa carambola, Breynia androgyna, Thyrsostachys oliveri, Persicaria viscosa, Pontederia vaginalis, Mitragyna speciose, Discospermum sphaerocarpum, Citrus assamensis, Clausena excavate, Murraya intermedia, Talinum fruticosum, and Debregeasia longifolia. The presence of underreported medicinal plant species implies the potential to discover new phytocompounds and represents a unique traditional pharmacopeia. Validating such plants may pave the way for the development of new therapeutic agents.
Cross-geographical analysis
In the fringe villages of UURF, Chromolaena odorata, Leucas lavandulifolia, Breynia androgyna, and Portulaca oleracea hold significant indicator value (Fig. 2). This is mainly because these plants are commonly found in the nearby villages and serve multiple purposes. While Alternanthera brasiliana, Centella asiatica, Catharanthus roseus, Licuala spinosa, Dracaena trifasciata, Cuscuta reflexa, Momordica charantia, Euphorbia hirta, Senna alata, Senna siamea, Yamazakia viscosa, Bombax ceiba, Boerhavia diffusa, Peperomia pellucida, Paederia foetida and Debregeasia longifolia (Fig. 2) are the indicator species of DRF. All these plant species have a significant utilization (p < 0.05) in the fringe villages of DRF, as they are commonly observed there. They also have good medicinal value, particularly against gastrointestinal ailments, cold, cough, and joint pain-related issues. However, the neighbouring villages of DURF lack any indicator species. This absence may result from their geographical location between the other two reserve forests and their relatively small size. Five adjacent villages have a notable number of Tripuri community members, although this population is smaller than the fringe villages of the other two neighbouring reserve forests. The variation in indicator species between the UURF and the DRF may be linked to differing edaphic factors such as soil moisture, pH, moisture retention capacity, and nutrient content, along with the essential microclimatic conditions that support the growth of medicinal plants. Nonetheless, additional research is necessary to clarify the underlying reasons for these differences and form a comprehensive epilogue.
Fig. 2.
Values of indicator species across three reserve forest clusters are emphasized in the box, covering three distinct survey areas
Family-wise diversity of medicinal plants and the process of their application
The study area under consideration featured an intriguing distribution of plant families (Fig. 3), with Lamiaceae emerging as the most prolific family, showcasing 11 observed species. Asteraceae followed closely, with 8 species. The Fabaceae family ranked third, with 7 species observed. Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, and Malvaceae families each recorded 4 species. Amaryllidaceae, Araceae, Phyllanthaceae, Rubiaceae, and Rutaceae families were represented by 3 species each. Other families, including Asparagaceae, Combretaceae, Convolvulaceae, Costaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae, Oleaceae, Oxalidaceae, Piperaceae, and Poaceae, represented 2 species each. In contrast, the remaining families exhibited only 1 species in the study area (Fig. 3, Supplementary File 1). This study area is a valuable repository of diverse plant families and species. Therefore, it is essential to conserve such an ecosystem so that future generations can benefit from and experientially learn about its ecological significance. Leaves constituted the most collected specimens and the utilized plant part, accounting for 38% of the total. This is because they are the easiest to obtain and the most readily accessible portion of the plant. Leaves also contain the highest phytochemical components for treating various ailments [21]. Flowers were the second most collected plant parts, accounting for 15%, followed by fruits (11%), whole plants and stems (8%), roots (6%), rhizomes (5%), seeds (4%), barks (3%), shoots (2%), bulbs (1%), pulp (0.5%), pods (1%), twigs (0.1%), latex and inflorescence (0.1%), respectively. In the study, herbal treatments have been noted to be prepared using 13 distinct processes. Poultice and infusion were the most popular methods, accounting for 24% and 23% of usage, respectively. The third most used method was sap (19%), followed by decoction (16%), crude extract (5%), cooked as a vegetable (4.5%), juice (2.6%), oil (2.3%), tea (1.3%), ripened fruit, and chewing of bark or stem either in dried or raw form (0.7%), raw leaves (0.5%), and powder (0.4%).
Fig. 3.
Family-wise dominance of medicinal plants used by the Tripuri community in Unakoti district, Tripura, northeast India
The chord diagram (Fig. 4) effectively showcases the complex connections between different plant parts used in traditional medicine and their application methods. Leaves are the most frequently used, commonly linked with preparations like infusion, decoction, and poultice, highlighting their central role in ethnomedicinal practices. Flowers, fruits, and roots also have significant associations, especially with sap and juice usage. The diagram emphasizes that infusion and poultice remain the primary methods, reflecting their popularity in extracting or applying bioactive compounds. Less frequently used parts, such as twigs, latex, and inflorescence, have limited representation, indicating specialized roles. This visual tool not only displays usage frequency but also reveals preferred combinations, offering valuable insights into traditional pharmacological knowledge and helping identify key bioresource components for future phytochemical and pharmacological studies.
Fig. 4.
The diagram shows the relationships between various plant parts used by the Tripuri tribes and how they are applied. Connecting chords indicate the frequency and strength of the association between specific plant parts and application processes. Thicker chords represent more frequently reported combinations
Agreement on medicinal plants for common diseases in the study area
ICF serves as a metric for evaluating the efficacy of plant species in treating specific ailments. Higher ICF values denote a widespread consensus among informants regarding the effectiveness of a particular plant in addressing an illness. Conversely, lower ICF values indicate a lack of unanimity among informants concerning the suitability of plants for addressing specific diseases [50]. This study calculates the ICF values to evaluate the significant plants the Tripuri community uses to manage various diseases. The community employs a diverse range of traditional techniques to treat various ailments. As shown in Table 5, eighty-three (83) illnesses were segmented into 14 use categories, wherein pregnancy and childbearing were found to have the highest ICF value of 1.0, followed by respiratory, digestive, musculoskeletal, neurological, blood, skin, psychological, endocrine, urinary, general, eye, circulatory, and genital systems, with ICF values ranging from 0.97 to 0.98. Medics and researchers continually pursue more effective treatment strategies for various illnesses. The present study has uncovered valuable information to aid them in this endeavour. The informants agreed upon the medicinal plants and their uses against specific ailments, indicating high confidence in their effectiveness.
Table 5.
Informant consensus factors (ICFs) of the illness categories relating to therapeutic plants used by the Tripuri community in the Unakoti district, Tripura, northeast India
| Disease category | Nur | Nt | ICF value |
|---|---|---|---|
| R | 2761 | 38 | 0.98 |
| S | 2295 | 51 | 0.97 |
| D | 4467 | 70 | 0.98 |
| T | 547 | 16 | 0.97 |
| L | 2471 | 47 | 0.98 |
| U | 412 | 11 | 0.97 |
| W | 65 | 1 | 1 |
| P | 111 | 4 | 0.97 |
| N | 270 | 6 | 0.98 |
| G | 370 | 12 | 0.97 |
| K | 288 | 8 | 0.97 |
| A | 841 | 22 | 0.97 |
| F | 184 | 5 | 0.97 |
| B | 181 | 4 | 0.98 |
*Nur: The number of use reports in each disease category, Nt: The number of plant species, R: Respiratory system, S: Skin, D: Digestive system, T: Endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional systems, L: Musculoskeletal system, U: Urinary system, W: Pregnancy and childbearing, P: Psychological, mental, and neurodevelopmental systems, N: Neurological system, G: Genital system, K: Circulatory system, A: General, F: Eye, B: Blood, blood-forming organs and immune system
Discussion
Socio-demographic characteristics of participants and knowledge of the traditional medicinal system
A thorough understanding of medicinal plants and their uses for treating different health conditions is greatly affected by sociodemographic factors, including age, gender, educational background, job status, and income level within a community. These cultural and social factors strongly impact the integrity of the traditional medicine system in that community [22]. Participants in this study were grouped into seven distinct age ranges, revealing significant differences in their knowledge of medicinal plants, how these plants are used, and their overall understanding of traditional healing methods. Notably, participants aged 30–39 years and those aged 90 years and older scored the lowest in their knowledge and use of medicinal plants. From the perspective of age structure, it is observed that the understanding of conventional medicine heightens as the age of the individual increases. At the same time, younger people of the community are comparatively less aware of medicinal plants and their utilization. The findings were consistent with a previous ethnobotanical study conducted in the Wayanad district, Kerala, India, where the authors reported that individuals over the age of 65 possessed significantly more knowledge of medicinal plants and their applications compared to younger members of the community [51]. Similarly, a study from Mizoram, northeast India, found that elders are much more knowledgeable than younger members of the community, as they have greater experience in utilizing medicinal plants [52]. This suggests that younger members of the community are less likely to be exposed to learning opportunities related to the application of traditional medicinal plants, which may gradually lead to the depletion of this traditional knowledge. Government initiatives, such as developing databases of existing knowledge, creating herbal gardens, and providing incentives to conventional healers, are critically needed to help people engage more deeply and preserve this knowledge. Furthermore, more research in this area is required to validate the traditional claims regarding the medicinal uses of these plants for specific diseases.
The frequency of utilization of medicinal plants was also high among aged people, while the younger generation is less interested in using traditional medicinal plants. This is consistent with the findings from Jammu and Kashmir, India, where the elders utilize medicinal plants more frequently than the younger members of the community. The shift among younger individuals away from the use of medicinal plants may be attributed to changes in lifestyle, migration to urban areas, rapid industrialization, and evolving perceptions within ethnic communities regarding the use of these plants. However, the group aged 90 or above may not provide a comprehensive view of medicinal plant use in this study, possibly due to their cognitive decline, physical impairments, and their limited participation [53]. Contrary to our findings, a study from Brazil conducted by Wayland and Walker (2014) found no significant relationship between age groups and their knowledge and use of medicinal plants. Nonetheless, interestingly, they noted that as individuals aged, there was a tendency for increased use of medicinal plants [54]. In our study, factors such as the influence of modern medicine, rapid urbanization, and educational systems that often prioritize scientific knowledge over conventional healing methods may partially explain why the 30–39 age group, which represents relatively younger individuals in society, appears to be less familiar with traditional medicinal practices. This observation aligns with the findings of a previous study conducted by Febriyanti and colleagues (2024) in Indonesia, who reported that younger members of their community exhibited a diminished interest in traditional medicines [55]. However, in stark contrast to their results, our research recorded a lower number of responses from the ≥ 90 age group, which may be attributed to the inclusion of a smaller representative sample from this age category in our study.
The current study found that 58.5% of participants were male, while 41.5% were female. Notably, males possessed significantly more knowledge about medicinal plants and used them more frequently than females. This difference may arise from men's primary role in collecting plants from forests, giving them more exposure to natural resources than women. Additionally, the community is mainly male-driven, with men playing a more active role in passing down traditional medicinal plant knowledge than women. Furthermore, when a family member becomes ill, the treatment decision is primarily made by the male head of the household. In contrast, women mainly handle domestic chores, which may limit their opportunities to learn about and contribute to medicinal plant knowledge. Unlike our findings, a study by Ralte and Singh (2024) in Mizoram reports no significant difference in the understanding of medicinal plant use between male and female participants [52]. Moreover, contrary to our results from the Brazilian community, it was reported that women have a better understanding of medicinal plants than men [28]. Another survey from Morocco also highlighted female dominance in medicinal plant knowledge over males [29]. The findings of the present study differ from those of previous research, possibly due to the community's social structure, where men hold more dominance within the family and possess greater social power, thereby facilitating their access to knowledge from various sources. Meanwhile, women focus more on home garden remedies, which limits their opportunities to explore medicinal knowledge.
Interrelated socio-economic factors shape ethnomedicinal knowledge and practices
The findings of the current study indicate no significant link between educational qualifications and knowledge of medicinal plants. This implies that the traditional understanding of ethnomedicinal practices primarily operates independently of formal education. Instead, such knowledge appears to be conveyed through cultural, familial, and community interactions, where storytelling, parental guidance, and observation play vital roles [56]. This outcome aligns with a previously reported ethnobiological study conducted by Kamsani and his team [57]. The present study revealed that traditional knowledge is primarily transmitted vertically from parents to children, ensuring the continuity of ethnomedicinal understanding and preserving the community's knowledge of medicinal plants. Professionally, significant differences were observed in the knowledge of medicinal plants. Compared to other professions examined in the study, the findings revealed that traditional healers possess a substantial and well-documented understanding of medicinal plants used to treat various ailments. This expertise is supported by generations of accumulated knowledge, cultural practices, and a strong connection to their natural environment [58]. Through structured training, they acquire skills that facilitate the preservation and enhancement of herbal treatments over time. By systematically observing, experimenting, and applying empirical knowledge, traditional healers refine their capabilities to assess which plants are most effective for specific conditions. Consistent with our findings, a study conducted in Thailand demonstrated the vital role of traditional healers in preserving traditional knowledge about medicinal plants. The research identified four healers who collectively recognized a total of 162 species of medicinal plants, which were classified into 141 genera and 63 families. Each healer exhibited an average familiarity with approximately 68 distinct medicinal species [59]. Similarly, Shankar et al. [42] and Belhouala and Benarba [43] demonstrated that traditional healers have extensive medicinal knowledge, integrating spiritual and holistic methods to treat specific ailments. This fosters a holistic approach to tackling physical ailments and patients' mental health. Nonetheless, limitations exist concerning the traditional use of medicinal plants. Thus, a thorough scientific validation is essential to substantiate traditional medicinal practices more broadly and effectively, thereby facilitating their integration into modern medicine.
According to Planta et al. [60], 56% of the low-income population turns to herbal medicines for relief from health conditions. Similar to our findings, a study in the Peruvian Andes suggests that low-income populations rely more heavily on medicinal herbs than those with higher incomes. This reliance on traditional healing methods primarily stems from limited access to modern healthcare services and financial constraints. Conversely, wealthier individuals generally have better access to contemporary medical facilities and allopathic treatments, reducing their necessity for medicinal herbs [61].
Ethnomedicinal plant diversity reflecting indigenous traditional knowledge and healing practices
The Tripuri community possesses an extensive understanding of the medicinal properties of various plant species for treating specific diseases. Although the community frequently employs several preferred species, a vast body of knowledge exists on using different medicinal plants for specific disease categories. The present study identified Zingiber officinale, Justicia gendarussa, Piper longum, and Andrographis paniculata as the most frequently cited plant species used by the Tripuri people for managing respiratory complications, including asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, sore throat, common cold, and cough. The plant species under consideration play a crucial role for the Tripuri community, which extensively utilize them to manage respiratory ailments. Consequently, overharvesting of these species poses a threat to local biodiversity unless sustainable harvesting practices are implemented. The presence and vitality of these plants serve as indicators of robust biodiversity and the overall integrity of the forest ecosystem. A decline in their populations may also signify environmental degradation. Moreover, the ongoing reliance on these plants for addressing respiratory conditions suggests that the Tripuri population may experience a higher prevalence of respiratory disorders relative to other health issues, coupled with limited access to conventional healthcare services. Thus, documenting and validating these traditional remedies could facilitate the development of community-oriented health initiatives and integrative medical approaches. These botanicals offer opportunities to create innovative, cost-effective, locally sourced, and culturally relevant management practices for respiratory issues. Their integration into primary healthcare systems and broader public health strategies might complement the advancements in pharmacological research. Thyrsostachys oliveri, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Breynia androgyna, Leucas aspera, Datura metel, and Cyclea peltata, on the other hand, are commonly cited to treat skin-related issues such as infection, wounds, and cuts. Andrographis paniculata, Zingiber officinale, Punica granatum, Tinospora cordifolia, and Pontederia vaginalis are frequently used for the management of digestive ailments, including gut worms, stomach function disorders, diarrhoea, jaundice, cancer, and other digestive issues. The Tripuri community primarily relies on traditional medicinal plants for healthcare, particularly in areas with limited access to modern medical services. The mentioned plants, including Andrographis paniculata and Punica granatum, which are utilized for infections, jaundice, and diseases similar to cancer, reflect a wealth of ethnobotanical knowledge as a key primary healthcare alternative. The identified species, namely Thyrsostachys oliveri and Datura metel, indicate a significant prevalence of infections and inflammation, likely attributed to poor sanitation in this isolated region. Additionally, the use of Zingiber officinale and Tinospora cordifolia suggests the existence of gastrointestinal diseases, potentially linked to malnutrition, poor diet, unsafe drinking water, and parasitic infections due to a lack of hygiene. Recording and verifying indigenous knowledge enhances cooperation between traditional healers and the mainstream healthcare system. Additionally, plants like Andrographis paniculata exemplify the importance of traditional Asian medicine and Ayurveda in their use, making them promising options for standardized herbal treatments [62]. Excessive use of medicinal plants, particularly wild varieties, can damage habitats and contribute to biodiversity loss. Hence, conservation strategies such as establishing community-based medicinal gardens and seed banks may be adopted to preserve and sustainably utilize vital medicinal plants. Talinum fruticosum and Abroma augustum have emerged as two highly cited plants among the informants for managing type II diabetes, addressing issues related to endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional systems. Abroma augustum, Calotropis gigantea, Plumbago zeylanica, Bauhinia acuminate, Justicia gendarussa, Clerodendrum chinense, and Ocimum gratissimum are widely used by the Tripuri people for the management of inflammatory or joint arthritis, which is accounted under the musculoskeletal system. Interestingly, the informants reported a sudden increase in the usage of Abroma augustum and Calotropis gigantea post-COVID-19 infection. Few traditional Tripuri healers have reported a significant reduction in joint inflammation even after immunization. It is rather challenging to verify whether a COVID-19 infection or immunization might have caused a higher incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in the study area. Nonetheless, previous works have indicated a vicious link between the incidence of COVID-19 infection and rheumatoid arthritis [63–69]. A 55-year-old man had flare-ups of his rheumatoid arthritis 12 h after getting the second dose of the COVID-19 vaccine, according to a case study by Terracina and Tan [70]. Another case study claimed the onset of rheumatoid arthritis in healthy people, followed by the mRNA vaccine for COVID-19 [64]. Talinum fruticosum and Abroma augustum have been noted to play a crucial role in managing type II diabetes, as mentioned earlier. This highlights the widespread prevalence of metabolic disorders in the population and underscores the importance of addressing this issue. In contrast, following the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a significant increase in the use of Abroma augustum and Calotropis gigantea, signalling the necessity for in-depth research to understand the reasons behind the growing utilization of these two significant anti-inflammatory plants. The increasing demand for these two plants could lead to unsustainable harvesting methods and declining plant populations. Abroma augustum and Ocimum tenuiflorum are efficacious plants in managing urinary system disorders, including kidney stones and urogenital complications. In addition, the local populace has been known to use Ocimum tenuiflorum as a pregnancy terminator. Meanwhile, Allium tuberosum and Hygrophila auriculata have emerged as two plant species commonly utilized by the Tripuri people for their aphrodisiac properties. These findings suggest the potential of such plant species for therapeutic applications in the management of urinary system disorders and/or improvement of sexual function. Oxalis corniculata and Justicia gendarussa are popularly used by the Tripuri people to treat epilepsy and headache in the study area. Similarly, Persicaria viscosa and Cynodon dactylon, used as contraceptives and against male reproductive organ infection, are accounted under the genital system. Discospermum sphaerocarpum and Centella asiatica are herbal remedies for managing high blood pressure. Additionally, Centella asiatica is reputed to possess blood-purifying properties. Portulaca oleracea effectively manages muscle pain and body aches, while Piper longum and Urena lobata are commonly used to treat malaria by the Tripuri healers. Lantana camara has been noted to be effective in managing influenza and fever. Furthermore, Abroma augustum has been used by folk medicine practitioners to manage headaches. These conditions are classified under the general disease category of ICPC-3 [8].
The use of Abroma augustum, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Allium tuberosum, Hygrophila auriculate, Persicaria viscosa, and Cynodon dactylon raises serious public health concerns related to urinary and reproductive health. Risks include unsafe abortions, which could endanger maternal life. Additionally, using plant-based remedies without adequate scientific backing may contribute to fertility issues and result in the overharvesting of numerous plants. Similarly, using Discospermum sphaerocarpum and Centella asiatica to manage high blood pressure raises concerns about appropriate blood pressure evaluation. It may also lead to unsustainable wild collection, loss of genetic diversity, and a decline in wild flora. Likewise, using Oxalis corniculata and Justicia gendarussa for the management of epilepsy and headaches without clinical supervision raises concerns for patient health, thus raising the risk of overexploitation and habitat destruction. Several plant species have been identified in the current study for their medicinal properties, notably Peperomia pellucida and Tinospora cordifolia, as effective treatments for conjunctivitis. Premna bengalensis was recognized for its potential to bolster immunity, and Ocimum gratissimum was acknowledged by the Tripuri people for its ability to ameliorate anaemia. Tinospora cordifolia and Peperomia pellucida may pose as cost-effective and easily accessible alternatives to brand-name drugs for treating conjunctivitis. However, establishing standardized use of plant-based therapies for managing conjunctivitis necessitates appropriate scientific validation. In preventative care, where immunomodulatory treatments are limited, Premna bengalensis may offer a beneficial immunity enhancer. Furthermore, the Tripuri community utilizes Ocimum gratissimum to combat anaemia, highlighting its importance in addressing micronutrient deficiencies, particularly iron deficiency, which is prevalent among marginalized tribal groups. The documentation of medicinal plants highlights the importance of maintaining local biodiversity. Individuals knowledgeable about specific plant species make them more prone to overharvesting, endangering the wild species. Furthermore, indigenous plant species tend to be more resilient to environmental stressors and may be more responsive to changes. Thus, sustainable use and conservation of these plants may enhance the overall resilience of the local ecosystem to shifting climatic conditions. If carefully documented and scientifically validated, ethnobotanical findings from the present study may play a role in devising future strategies to foster sustainable healthcare systems, preserve biodiversity, and enhance community resilience against environmental degradation and public health threats.
Medicinal plants are an incredible source of natural compounds that can be used to treat a wide variety of health conditions. They contain chemicals that can be utilized for therapeutic purposes or as building blocks for the formulation of valuable pharmaceuticals [71]. These plants contain a plethora of active principles of therapeutic value that can be extracted from different parts, including leaves, roots, bark, fruits, seeds, and flowers. Each such part of the plant possesses unique bioactive compounds. A part of the plant may even contain toxic substances, while the other part(s) may be non-toxic [22]. In the current study, leaves have been reported to be used most by the local people of the study area, while twigs are utilized the least. In contrast to several ethnobotanical studies [3, 20, 32, 55], the present study reports flowers as a frequently used part in preparing traditional herbal medicines by the Tripuri community. This may be because flowers are accepted as holy entities in the Tripuri culture and are often used to worship the gods and goddesses, particularly the goddess of forests—“Bondebi”. Fruits, stems, whole plants, roots, rhizomes, and seeds are also crucial in preparing herbal drugs. Moreover, different parts of a single plant species are noted to be utilized by folk medical practitioners of the community in treating various ailments with reasonable efficacy. This may be due to the diverse bioactive compounds present in different plant parts. Traditionally used medicinal herbs are extremely valuable in each community's cultural element. Tripuris are the pioneer forest inhabitants and the oldest of Tripura's natives. They also worship various plant species alongside gods and goddesses. They primarily practice the Hindu religion and use plants such as Ocimum tenuiflorum, Datura metel, Calotropis gigantea, and others to worship the deities. As a result, their healing traditions have included medicinal flora found in the rich and diverse forests of Tripura. As they play an essential role in the traditional medical system of the Tripuri community, which has been passed down through generations, the Tripuri people have gathered a thorough understanding of the medicinal characteristics of numerous plant species and have been using them for ages to treat a variety of maladies. The use of medicinal herbs is deeply ingrained in their cultural heritage and plays a vital role in their daily lives. Thus, knowledge of medicinal plants is a long-standing representation of their cultural identity, formed by their surroundings and past events. Their ancient medical system is founded on a thorough understanding of the properties of numerous plants and how they are utilized to treat various ailments. It is a testament to their resourcefulness and ability to create a comprehensive traditional medical system that has enabled them to address health issues and navigate challenges in changing times. The continuing usage of medicinal herbs in the Tripuri culture emphasizes the necessity of maintaining and disseminating such traditional knowledge.
Application and informant consensus factor of medicinal plants
The participants in this study reported using oil extracts and applying heated or burnt leaves topically to achieve quick relief, especially for joint pain and skin wounds or infections. The Tripuri community primarily employs two therapeutic methods: oral and topical application of plant-based ingredients. With a wide range of techniques available, herbal remedies stand out as a valuable alternative for those seeking natural ways to address ailments. A notable trend in the community is the combination of traditional medicinal plants with modern pharmaceuticals to enhance the effectiveness of treatment. In addition, allopathic treatments are believed to have more adverse side effects than traditional ones [72, 73]. Utilizing poultices and infusions was considered as the foremost remedial practice among the Tripuri people for managing various health issues. These methods are steeped in history, having been well-documented in numerous medicinal texts and systems worldwide. Presently, ailments such as inflammatory arthritis, infections, and skin wounds are prevalent; consequently, the significance of topical poultice application and the use of associated plant materials have notably increased. Infusions, characterized as tea-type preparations achieved by steeping herbs or plant parts in warm water, are typically consumed orally or applied locally to address various conditions, including gastrointestinal disturbances, headaches, and dermatological issues. Both of these methods are regarded as natural and safe, thereby ensuring their continuity in use across generations. The decoction method ranked as the second most widely reported preparation technique within the community, recognized for its efficacy in traditional medicine systems to extract bioactive compounds from plant materials. This process involves prolonged boiling, which facilitates the release of active phytochemicals, resulting in a liquid that is rich in soluble bioactive molecules. Both oral and topical administration of such filtered liquids present significant therapeutic advantages. This study, grounded in semi-structured, questionnaire-based face-to-face interviews with local informants, identified a total of 105 species of medicinal plants and documented 83 distinct disorders, which were classified into 14 disease categories according to the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-3). Notably, the high ICF values across almost all disease categories suggest a robust consensus among the Tripuri informants regarding the efficacy of medicinal plants. These findings represent a significant advancement towards improving treatment modalities and therapeutic strategies. By amalgamating traditional medicine with contemporary treatment frameworks, not only can cultural heritage be preserved, but the therapeutic potential inherent in natural remedies can also be harnessed effectively. Moreover, this investigation explores the traditional usage of medicinal herbs as natural therapies within the Tripuri community, aiming to elucidate their potential health benefits and effectiveness. The results reveal specific natural treatments preferred for various ailments, reinforcing the need for accurate identification and validation of these plants’ therapeutic capacities. Analysis of use reports (URs) indicates that digestive system-related ailments are the most prevalent, accounting for 4467 URs and the utilization of 70 different plant species. The respiratory system emerged as the second most common ailment category, with 2761 URs stemming from 38 plant species. Furthermore, musculoskeletal and skin-related disorders ranked third and fourth, respectively, with 2471 and 295 URs utilizing 47 and 51 plant species. Conversely, conditions about pregnancy and childbirth reported the lowest utilization, at only 65 URs associated with one plant species. These findings underscore the efficacy of plant-based remedies for a variety of ailments. Previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in this region have corroborated the unique preparation methods and the medicinal potential of local flora as recognized by ethnic communities [73–75]. This phenomenon is, in part, attributed to the limited access to healthcare facilities in remote locales and a prevalent belief among certain community members, especially the elderly, that modern pharmaceuticals may pose health risks. Consequently, forest dwellers exhibit a marked preference for plant-based remedies over synthetic alternatives. The enduring wisdom of generations has solidified a firm conviction within the community regarding the effectiveness of these remedies. The Elderly Tripuri folks continued to view forests as their favourite goddess —“Bondebi”. As a result, they encourage using forest products, such as medicinal herbs, in their daily lives. A principle on which the present study is based is the belief that humanity would benefit more when traditional medicine and modern science converge. The findings may thus provide recognition to the local population for their tradition of using medicinal plants and aid in improving their healthcare system through the possibility of discovering modern drugs upon the scientific validation of such herbal remedies. The Tripuri community has a rich history of utilizing medicinal plants for various purposes. Their vast knowledge base enables them to use many herbal items effectively against multiple illnesses. The older generation imparts this information to the younger ones, which fosters the growth of a comprehensive network of folk medical experts within the Tripuri community. This study reveals that nearly every age group in the community is aware of how to utilize specific medicinal plants to treat particular ailments. However, the community was generally less aware of the many other uses of many of the plant species.
Limitations of the present study
The study also has some limitations stemming from certain traditional healers' reluctance to fully share their ethnobotanical knowledge due to cultural taboos and concerns about exploitation. Some informants were hesitant to reveal their expertise and experiences, which may lead to the loss of valuable information that cannot be captured in this investigation. Additionally, oral transmission of information about medicinal plant use can be influenced by embellishments or memory lapses. The study reports the traditional uses of medicinal plants but does not necessarily verify their pharmacological efficacy or safety. It highlights the importance of qualitative data collection and underscores the need for further clinical or laboratory validation. There is also a considerable risk of losing crucial information when knowledge is shared through storytelling, particularly in a community lacking reliable literature on the traditional use of medicinal plants.
Conclusions
The Tripuri people's unique and significant reliance on a rich variety of medicinal plants for addressing a wide range of health issues is a fascinating aspect of this research. Amongst these, the ten most frequently cited species comprise Zingiber officinale (551), Andrographis paniculata (504), Abroma augustum (448), Piper longum (435), Justicia gendarussa (429), Tinospora cordifolia (378), Ocimum gratissimum (333), Pontederia vaginalis (321), Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (288), and Clerodendrum infortunatum (278). Diverse utilization of medicinal plants is highlighted by the documentation of 15,263 URs, which pertain to distinct traditional medicinal recipes across 14 disease categories. Study revealed that middle-aged individuals (ages 40–59) possess extensive knowledge of these practices, gained through experiential learning and active participation in traditional medicine systems. In contrast, younger adults (ages 30–39) and very elderly participants (ages 90 and above) show reduced levels of knowledge. This could be attributed to the younger generation's inclination towards modern pharmaceuticals, while the cognitive decline often seen in the very elderly may impact their ability to retain traditional knowledge. Among the age groups analysed, those aged 50–59, 60–69, and 70–79 reported significantly higher use of medicinal plants, suggesting a deeper understanding of these practices within middle-aged and elderly populations compared to their younger counterparts. Additionally, the study reveals a notable disparity between genders, with male participants using medicinal plants more frequently than females. Interestingly, educational background does not significantly influence the frequency or manner of using medicinal plants. Traditional healers in the community maintain a wealth of knowledge regarding these practices and the healing process. Among the plant families studied, Lamiaceae stands out as the most prominent, with 11 species recorded, and leaves are the most commonly utilized parts. Preparations such as infusions, decoctions, and poultices highlight the central role of these plants in ethnomedicinal practices, particularly for conditions like joint pain and skin infections. The Tripuri community primarily employs two therapeutic methods: oral consumption and topical application of plant materials. The most prevalent ailments in the region include inflammatory arthritis, various infections, and skin wounds, followed closely by respiratory illnesses.
However, the Tripuri people lack well-documented records of medicinal plants and their uses, their traditional knowledge is preserved through oral transmission from one generation to the next. This study describes the conventional use of plants and reports the diseases for which it is used, but it does not provide scientific evidence of the actual efficacy of these plants. However, these data could be beneficial in guiding future pharmacological research aimed at testing their effectiveness. Additionally, it provides a constructive framework for their ethnomedicine system and offers valuable insights from the database preparation, which could significantly contribute to the global healthcare system.
Supplementary Information
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all the informants for their generous participation in this study. Additionally, we extend our thanks to Hasi Debbarma, Subudh Debbarma, Khumtiya Debbarma, and Swarup Debbarma, with special appreciation to Dr. Subrata Sharma for allowing us to submit the plant herbaria to the Department of Botany at Ambedkar College, Fatikroy, Unakoti, Tripura, for further enrichment of research and study in the locality.
Abbreviations
- A
General
- B
Blood, blood-forming organs, and the immune system
- D
Digestive system
- F
Eye
- G
Genital system
- ICF
Informant consensus factor
- ICPC
International Classification of Primary Care
- K
Circulatory system
- L
Musculoskeletal system
- mRNA
Messenger-Ribonucleic acid
- N
Neurological system
- Nt
The number of plant species
- Nur
The number of use reports in each category of disease
- P
Psychological, mental and neurodevelopmental system
- R
Respiratory system
- S
Skin
- T
Endocrine, metabolic and nutritional system
- U
Urinary system
- UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
- URs
Use Reports
- UV
Use Value
- W
Pregnancy and childbearing
- WHO
World Health Organization
Author contributions
S.D.R. and S.Ro. did conceptualization, and supervision; S.D., J.D. and P.R. done methodology, and investigation; S.D. did writing—original draft preparation; S.D.R., S.Ra, I.M.R., S.S.P., B.D., and S.Ro contributed to writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Availability of data and materials
The detailed data are in the main manuscript or the accompanying supplementary file, which provide comprehensive insights and additional context for the presented research work.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The investigation was conducted according to ethical research guidelines in ethnobiology, ensuring adherence to established methods, with the approval of the Institutional Ethics Committee of Assam University, Silchar (vide reference number IEC/AUS/2024/SRC/13 dated 01/01/2025).
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Contributor Information
Sarbani Dey Ray, Email: sarbanideyray09@gmail.com.
Shubhadeep Roychoudhury, Email: shubhadeep1@gmail.com.
References
- 1.WHO global report on traditional and complementary medicine 2019 [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 8]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978924151536
- 2.Integrating Traditional Medicine in Health Care [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jul 30]. Available from: https://www.who.int/southeastasia/news/feature-stories/detail/integrating-traditional-medicine
- 3.Anand U, Tudu CK, Nandy S, Sunita K, Tripathi V, Loake GJ, et al. Ethnodermatological use of medicinal plants in India: from ayurvedic formulations to clinical perspectives - a review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2022;284:114744. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Roychoudhury S, Das D, Das S, Jha NK, Pal M, Kolesarova A, et al. Clinical potential of Himalayan herb Bergenia Ligulata: an evidence-based study. Molecules. 2022;27:7039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Tian L, Huang S, Zeng J, Liu S, Jin H, Chen Y, et al. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by the Miao people in Hainan. China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2025;21:43. 10.1186/s13002-025-00795-z. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Tripathi M, Seshamani G, Satyanarayana K. Depletion of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. Curr Sci. 2012;103:873. [Google Scholar]
- 7.Ethnic Diversity | Tripura Biodiversity Board [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 9]. Available from: https://biodiversity.tripura.gov.in/ethnic-diversity
- 8.van Boven K, Ten Napel H. ICPC-3 International Classification of Primary Care: user manual and classification. CRC Press; 2021. [Google Scholar]
- 9.Centre UWH. Rock-cut Sculptures and Reliefs of the Unakoti, Unakoti Range, Unakoti District [Internet]. UNESCO World Herit. Cent. 2022 [cited 2024 Oct 8]. Available from: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6628/
- 10.Ghosh TC. Impact of macro vegetation and edaphic variables on the distribution and diversity of Oribatida (Acari) in Northern Tripura, India. Biologia (Bratisl). 2018;73:1229–36. 10.2478/s11756-018-0142-2. [Google Scholar]
- 11.IMD agartala | Todays Weather Report [Internet]. [cited 2025 Jan 9]. Available from: https://mausam.imd.gov.in/imd_latest/contents/Todaysweather_mc.php?id=16
- 12.Banik B, Majumdar K, Baishnab B, Datta BK. Impact of tourism on forest habitat surrounding in Unakoti: an important archaeological site of Tripura, North-East India. Res Rev J Life Sci. 2018;50–66
- 13.Bhowmik S, Chowdhury SD. Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) in and around the Unakoti Archaeological Site with 59 new additions to the Butterfly Fauna of Tripura, North-eastern India. Asian J Conserv Biol [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2025 Apr 20];10. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/download/67733425/AJCB_Vol10_No1_66186_Bhowmik_Chowdhury_1_.pdf
- 14.The ISE Code of Ethics [Internet]. Int. Soc. Ethnobiol. [cited 2025 Jun 19]. Available from: https://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/
- 15.Naderifar M, Goli H, Ghaljaie F. Snowball sampling: a purposeful method of sampling in qualitative research. Strides Dev Med Educ [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2025 Jan 8];14. Available from: http://sdmejournal.com/en/articles/67670.html
- 16.Weckerle CS, De Boer HJ, Puri RK, Van Andel T, Bussmann RW, Leonti M. Recommended standards for conducting and reporting ethnopharmacological field studies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;210:125–32. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Asiimwe S, Namukobe J, Byamukama R, Imalingat B. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira and Mpanga Central Forest Reserves, Uganda. Trop Med Health. 2021;49:52. 10.1186/s41182-021-00341-z. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Plants of the World Online | Kew Science [Internet]. Plants World Online. [cited 2025 Feb 14]. Available from: https://powo.science.kew.org/
- 19.WFO [Internet]. [cited 2025 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.worldfloraonline.org/
- 20.Addi Y-W, Ren Z-X, Rutherford S, Ding X-Y, Guo C-A, Zhang X, et al. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by the Yi people in Xiaoliangshan, Yunnan Province, SW China. J Ethnopharmacol. 2024;323:117683. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Wali R, Rahman K, Raja NI, Qureshi R, Mashwani Z-R. A quantitative medico-botanical expedition of fairy meadows National Park, Diamir, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. BioRxiv [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2025 Jan 8];507848. Available from: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/507848.abstract
- 22.Lara Reimers EA, Lara Reimers DJ, Chaloupkova P, Zepeda Del Valle JM, Milella L, et al. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico. Plants. 2019;8:246. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Panghal M, Arya V, Yadav S, Kumar S, Yadav JP. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used by Saperas community of Khetawas, Jhajjar District, Haryana, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:4. 10.1186/1746-4269-6-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Xavier TF, Kannan M, Lija L, Auxillia A, Rose AKF, Kumar SS. Ethnobotanical study of Kani tribes in Thoduhills of Kerala, South India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;152:78–90. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.Shil S, Dutta Choudhury M, Das S. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used by the Reang tribe of Tripura state of India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;152:135–41. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Sivasankari B, Anandharaj M, Gunasekaran P. An ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used by the village peoples of Thoppampatti, Dindigul district, Tamilnadu, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:408–23. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Bisht S, Adhikari BS. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by Banraji Community in Uttarakhand, West Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Tradit Med. 2018;129:1426–41. [Google Scholar]
- 28.Yanka H, Rinyo R, Das SK, Das TJ, Paul D, Gupta DD, et al. A brief cross-cultural ethnobotanical note on the Abotani tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Pleione. 2019;13:269. [Google Scholar]
- 29.Samar R, Jain M, Shrivastava PN. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by tribes of Guna district, Madhya Pradesh, India [Internet]. Int. J. 2020 [cited 2025 Apr 28]. Available from: https://www.ijasret.com/VolumeArticles/FullTextPDF/514_13.ETHNOBOTANICAL_STUDY_OF_MEDICINAL_PLANTS_USED_BY_TRIBESOF_GUNA_DISTRICT,_MADHYA_PRADESH,_INDIA.pdf
- 30.Pradeesh DS, Sukumaran S, Jeeva S, Jenisha SR. Ethnobotanical studies of Kanies in Mothiramalai, Kilamalai reserve Forest, Kalial range, Kanyakumari Forest division, Tamilnadu. High Technol Lett. 2020;26:989–1002. [Google Scholar]
- 31.Asif M, Haq SM, Yaqoob U, Hassan M, Jan HA. Ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used by the tribal communities in tehsil “Karnah” of District Kupwara (Jammu and Kashmir) India. Ethnobot Res Appl [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2025 Apr 28];21. Available from: http://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/2401
- 32.Sharma A, Patel SK, Singh GS. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among three tribal communities of Vindhyan highlands, India: an approach for their conservation and sustainability. Environ Sustain. 2021;4:749–83. 10.1007/s42398-021-00196-4. [Google Scholar]
- 33.Rathi B, Khobragade P, Rathi R, Gupta R. Ethno-botanical survey on medicinal plants used by tribes of karanja (Ghadge) Tahsil of Wardha District, Maharashtra, India. Int J Ayurvedic Med. 2021;12:43–52. [Google Scholar]
- 34.Khajuria AK, Manhas RK, Kumar H, Bisht NS. Ethnobotanical study of traditionally used medicinal plants of Pauri district of Uttarakhand, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2021;276:114204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Supriya K, Chauhan K, Sagar A. Survey of ethnobotanical medicinal plants used by Gaddi tribal community in village Bandi district Kangra, Himachal Pradesh (India). Int J Sci Res. 2022;11:622–8. [Google Scholar]
- 36.Meitei LR, De A, Mao AA. An ethnobotanical study on the wild edible plants used by forest dwellers in Yangoupokpi Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Manipur, India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2022;23. Available from: https://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/3275
- 37.Bhattacharjya DK, Akhtar J, Deka P, Bharadwaj A. An ethnobotanical survey on phytomedicines based on traditional knowledge in the Barpeta district, Assam, India. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2023;14:100763. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.Tamang S, Singh A, Bussmann RW, Shukla V, Nautiyal MC. Ethno-medicinal plants of tribal people: A case study in Pakyong subdivision of East Sikkim, India. Acta Ecol Sin. 2023;43:34–46. [Google Scholar]
- 39.Arulappan MT, Britto SJ, Ruckmani K, Kumar RM. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Gingee hills, Villupuram district, Tamilnadu, India. Am J Ethnomed. 2015;2:84–102. [Google Scholar]
- 40.Muniappan Ayyanar MA, Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu SI. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commonly used by Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India. 2011 [cited 2025 Jun 20]; Available from: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20113148744 [DOI] [PubMed]
- 41.Bala LD, Singh R. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by Mawasi tribe of Chitrakoot region Distt. Satna (MP) India. Int J Biol Res. 2016;1:13–5. [Google Scholar]
- 42.Kalaiselvan M, Gopalan R. Ethnobotanical studies on selected wild medicinal plants used by Irula tribes of bolampatty valley, nilgiri biosphere reserve (NBR), southern Western Ghats, India. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2014;7:22–6. [Google Scholar]
- 43.Pandey A, Mavinkurve RG. Ethno-Botanical usage of plants by the Chakma community of Tripura, Northeast India. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2014;3:11–4. [Google Scholar]
- 44.Datta T, Patra AK, Dastidar SG. Medicinal plants used by tribal population of Coochbehar district, West Bengal, India–an ethnobotanical survey [Internet]. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. Elsevier; 2014 [cited 2025 Jun 20]. p. S478–82. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2221169115303130 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
- 45.Sahu AR, Sahu M, Raal A. An Ethnobotanical Study on Native Plants of Bargarh District of Western Odisha, India in Relieving Urogenital Ailments [Internet]. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2021 [cited 2025 Jun 20]. p. 1–11. Available from: https://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/2591
- 46.Laldingliani TBC, Thangjam NM, Zomuanawma R, Bawitlung L, Pal A, Kumar A. Ethnomedicinal study of medicinal plants used by Mizo tribes in Champhai district of Mizoram, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2022;18:22. 10.1186/s13002-022-00520-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Kandari LS, Gharai AK, Negi T, Phondani PC. Ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plants among tribal communities in Orissa. India J For Res Open Access. 2012;1:2. [Google Scholar]
- 48.Namsa ND, Mandal M, Tangjang S, Mandal SC. Ethnobotany of the Monpa ethnic group at Arunachal Pradesh, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:31. 10.1186/1746-4269-7-31. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.Singhal A, Khare RK, Yadav R. Comparative study of some ethnomedicinal plants among the tribals of Datia and Sheopurkalan District (MP). Int J Life Sci Sci Res. 2017;3:838–43. [Google Scholar]
- 50.Wali R, Khan MF, Mahmood A, Mahmood M, Qureshi R, Ahmad KS, et al. Ethnomedicinal appraisal of plants used for the treatment of gastrointestinal complaints by tribal communities living in Diamir district, Western Himalayas, Pakistan. PLoS ONE. 2022;17:e0269445. 10.1371/journal.pone.0269445. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 51.Anju T, Kumar A. Traditional ecological knowledge and medicinal plant diversity usage among the Mullu Kuruman tribes of Wayanad district of Kerala, India and its implications for biodiversity conservation in the face of climate change. Trees For People. 2024;16:100595. [Google Scholar]
- 52.Ralte L, Singh YT. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by various ethnic tribes of Mizoram, India. PLoS ONE. 2024;19:e0302792. 10.1371/journal.pone.0302792. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.Mir TA, Jan M, Jan HA, Bussmann RW, Sisto F, Fadlalla IMT. A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Medicinal Plant Utilization among the Four Ethnic Communities in Northern Regions of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Biology. 2022;11:1578. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.Wayland C, Walker LS. Length of residence, age and patterns of medicinal plant knowledge and use among women in the urban Amazon. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:25. 10.1186/1746-4269-10-25. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 55.Febriyanti RM, Saefullah K, Susanti RD, Lestari K. Knowledge, attitude, and utilization of traditional medicine within the plural medical system in West Java, Indonesia. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2024;24:64. 10.1186/s12906-024-04368-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 2011;7:28. 10.1186/1746-4269-7-28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 57.Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 58.Yiblet Y. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to manage human ailments in Lay Gaint District, South Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Northwestern Ethiopia. Heliyon. 2024;10:e35277. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.Junsongduang A, Kasemwan W, Lumjoomjung S, Sabprachai W, Tanming W, Balslev H. Ethnomedicinal Knowledge of Traditional Healers in Roi Et, Thailand. Plants. 2020;9:1177. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 60.Planta M, Gundersen B, Petitt JC. Prevalence of the use of herbal products in a low-income population. [Internet]. Fam. Med. 2000 [cited 2025 Apr 28]. p. 252–7. Available from: https://europepmc.org/article/med/10782371 [PubMed]
- 61.Corroto F, Gamarra Torres OA, Macía MJ. Understanding the influence of socioeconomic variables on medicinal plant knowledge in the peruvian andes. Plants. 2022;11:2681. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 62.Kilgore D, Najm W. Common respiratory diseases. Prim Care Clin Off Pract. 2010;37:297–324. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 63.D’Silva KM, Wallace ZS. COVID-19 and rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2021;33:255–61. 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000786. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 64.Watanabe T, Minaga K, Hara A, Yoshikawa T, Kamata K, Kudo M. Case report: new-onset rheumatoid arthritis following COVID-19 vaccination. Front Immunol. 2022;13:859926. 10.3389/fimmu.2022.859926/full. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 65.Dewanjee S, Kandimalla R, Kalra RS, Valupadas C, Vallamkondu J, Kolli V, et al. COVID-19 and rheumatoid arthritis crosstalk: emerging association, therapeutic options and challenges. Cells. 2021;10:3291. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 66.Elemam NM, Maghazachi AA, Hannawi S. COVID-19 infection and rheumatoid arthritis: mutual outburst cytokines and remedies. Curr Med Res Opin. 2021;37:929–38. 10.1080/03007995.2021.1906637. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 67.Favalli EG, Ingegnoli F, De Lucia O, Cincinelli G, Cimaz R, Caporali R. COVID-19 infection and rheumatoid arthritis: Faraway, so close! Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19:102523. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 68.Grainger R, Kim AHJ, Conway R, Yazdany J, Robinson PC. COVID-19 in people with rheumatic diseases: risks, outcomes, treatment considerations. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2022;18:191–204. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 69.Marín JS, Mazenett-Granados EA, Salazar-Uribe JC, Sarmiento M, Suárez JF, Rojas M, et al. Increased incidence of rheumatoid arthritis after COVID-19. Autoimmun Rev. 2023;22:103409. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 70.Terracina KA, Tan FK. Flare of rheumatoid arthritis after COVID-19 vaccination. Lancet Rheumatol. 2021;3:e469–70. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 71.Kunle. Standardization of herbal medicines - A review. Int J Biodivers Conserv. 2012;4. Available from: http://www.academicjournals.org/ijbc/abstracts/abstracts/abstracts2012/March/Kunle%20et%20al.htm
- 72.Dora BB, Nagayya S, Janardhanan A, Anku G, Borah T, Tripathi AK, et al. Traditional Healing Practices among the Indigenous People of Kumarghat, Unakoti District, Tripura. J Drug Res Ayurvedic Sci. 2020;5:44–56. 10.5005/jdras-10059-0092. [Google Scholar]
- 73.Koushik M, Choudhary BK, Badal Kumar D. Ethnomedicinal plants of Tripura: an overview and future prospects. 2020; Available from: http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.36266.24007
- 74.Shiddamallayya N, Dora BB, Anjana J, Anku G, Borah T, Tripathi AK, et al. Local health traditions (LHTs) of Kailashahar subdivision, Unakoti district, Tripura. J Drug Res Ayurvedic Sci. 2021;6:89–103. 10.4103/jdras.jdras_6_21. [Google Scholar]
- 75.Dhiman KS, Mangal AK, Rath C, Anku G, Tripathi AK, Borah T, et al. Traditional Healing practices among the indigenous people of Kumarghat, Unakoti District, Tripura. J Drug Res Ayurvedic Sci. 2020;5:44–56. 10.5005/jdras-10059-0092. [Google Scholar]
Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Data Availability Statement
The detailed data are in the main manuscript or the accompanying supplementary file, which provide comprehensive insights and additional context for the presented research work.