Religious attitudes and self-control as predictors of self-esteem in Peruvian Christians: a cross-sectional study

Abstract

Background

Self-esteem, a key indicator of psychological well-being, is shaped by both individual and contextual factors, including self-control and attitudes toward religion. However, its specific interplay within religious cultural contexts, such as that of Peru, remains underexplored.

Objective

To determine the predictive role of self-control and attitudes toward religion on self-esteem in a sample of Peruvian Seventh-day Adventist Christians, and to examine potential mean differences across sociodemographic variables including sex, age, marital status, and educational level.

Method

This was a cross-sectional study with a sample of 297 members of the SDA, selected through non-probabilistic purposive sampling. The instruments used included the Attitudes Toward Religion Scale, the Brief Self-Control Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Data were collected through online questionnaires administered via Google Forms, and the analysis was conducted using multiple statistical models.

Results

The results indicated significant differences in attitudes toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem based on marital status and age (p < .05). In addition, positive and significant correlations were observed between attitude toward religion and self-esteem (p < .001, CI [0.258, 0.456]), as well as between self-control and self-esteem (p < .001, CI [0.346, 0.530]). Finally, self-control (β = 0.360, p < .001, CI [0.254, 0.467]) and attitude toward religion (β = 0.236, p < .001, CI [0.130, 0.342]) were significant predictors of self-esteem, accounting for 23.9% of its variance.

Conclusion

These results have important implications for promoting psychological well-being in religious contexts and highlight the need to develop intervention strategies that enhance self-control and recognize religious practices as valuable resources for improving self-esteem.

Introduction

Religion has played a central role in the lives of millions of people throughout history, offering a framework for meaning, moral guidance, and emotional support [1]. In the Christian context, these aspects are particularly prominent, as faith is rooted in principles such as self-love, self-discipline, and the pursuit of a transcendental purpose [2]. For Christians, religious beliefs and practices influence not only their relationship with God but also their relationships with themselves and others, significantly impacting their psychological well-being [3].

In Christian communities, self-esteem is often shaped by the interaction between attitudes toward religion and associated values, such as self-control [4]. Religion promotes a positive view of the human being as a divine creation, fostering self-worth grounded in spiritual principles [5]. On the other hand, self-control, often emphasized in Christian texts and teachings, is regarded as a key virtue for living in alignment with the principles of faith, enhancing the perception of self-efficacy and contributing to healthy self-esteem [3]. Therefore, in the Peruvian context, where Christianity remains predominant and holds a central role in daily life [6], exploring how these variables interact in shaping self-esteem is particularly relevant.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem is a fundamental psychological construct that refers to an individual’s subjective evaluation of themselves [7]. Rosenberg [8], a prominent theorist in this field, defines self-esteem as a general attitude toward oneself, which can be either positive or negative. This construct encompasses not only the perception of one’s abilities and characteristics but also the extent to which a person feels deserving of respect and appreciation [9, 10]. Self-esteem is not a fixed trait; it can fluctuate over time and is influenced by both internal and external factors, including life experiences, interpersonal relationships, and cultural context [9]. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, utilized in this study, is one of the most widely validated and commonly used instruments for assessing self-esteem [8]. This instrument measures global self-esteem using ten items that assess both positive and negative aspects of self-worth. Positive items capture self-confidence and a sense of personal value, while negative items address feelings of dissatisfaction and perceptions of failure [11].

Although self-esteem is generally conceptualized as a unidimensional construct on the Rosenberg scale, some researchers have suggested that it can be subdivided into specific dimensions, such as implicit and explicit self-esteem, or self-esteem rooted in particular domains [12, 13]. Implicit self-esteem refers to automatic, non-conscious self-evaluations, whereas explicit self-esteem is associated with conscious and deliberate reflections about oneself [12]. However, in the context of the present study, the global perspective proposed by Rosenberg, which encompasses an overall assessment of perceived personal worth, is adopted [8, 11]. The importance of self-esteem lies in its connection to various aspects of psychological and social well-being [14]. Previous studies have found that positive self-esteem is associated with higher life satisfaction, greater emotional resilience, and healthier interpersonal relationships [15]. Conversely, low self-esteem has been associated with mental health issues such as depression and anxiety, as well as risky behaviors and challenges in social adjustment [16]. These findings underscore the importance of understanding the factors that contribute to the development and maintenance of healthy self-esteem, particularly within specific cultural and religious contexts.

Attitudes towards religion

Attitudes toward religion refer to the beliefs, feelings, and behaviors an individual holds regarding religious aspects, such as the practices, doctrines, and symbols of a particular faith. These attitudes are multidimensional, encompassing cognitive (religious beliefs), affective (feelings about religion), and behavioral (engagement in religious practices) components [17]. From a psychological perspective, religious attitudes shape how individuals understand their purpose in life, cope with adversity, and build relationships with others—key elements in the development of their identity and subjective well-being [18]. In addition, religious practices involve active participation in faith-based activities, such as attending religious services, praying, or meditating, which strengthen one’s commitment to religion [19]. Another important dimension is the personal importance of religion, which reflects the extent to which religion is central to an individual’s life, influencing their daily decisions and actions [18]. Finally, emotional connection refers to the feelings of peace, comfort, and purpose that individuals gain from their religious experience, offering a positive emotional foundation that supports their psychological well-being [20].

Attitudes toward religion and self-esteem

Some studies show a positive relationship between religion and self-esteem [21, 22]. Religion can positively influence self-esteem through various mechanisms. First, it offers individuals a defined identity and a sense of belonging by fostering participation in rituals and adherence to religious norms [23]. This promotes a positive perception of the group to which they belong, thereby reinforcing its members’ self-esteem [24, 25]. Considering that religious meaning provides at least two frames of reference—one linked to the material dimension of life and the other to the non-material—it is suggested that this dual perspective helps mitigate the psychological impact when individuals feel they do not meet certain group expectations. This dualism, in turn, serves as a protective mechanism for self-esteem [26]. Second, religious beliefs often promote a positive self-view, emphasizing individuals as valuable, loved, cherished, and protected by a divine entity [27].

This sense of intrinsic value can enhance self-esteem. It is important to note that the relationship between religion and self-esteem may vary depending on religious orientation. Individuals with an intrinsic orientation toward religion often report higher self-esteem, as their commitment aligns with their inner values, providing greater coherence and meaning in life [28]. In contrast, an extrinsic orientation, which relies on external factors such as social recognition, may be associated with a more fragile self-esteem that is vulnerable to external circumstances [29]. In addition, individual perceptions of God also shape this relationship. For instance, a study found that viewing God as a loving figure is positively associated with higher levels of self-esteem, whereas perceiving God as vengeful and punitive is negatively associated with self-esteem [30].

These differences illustrate the ambivalent role of religious beliefs. On the one hand, they can offer significant support by promoting acceptance, fostering resilience, and aiding in coping with adversity [31]. They can also foster feelings of peace, self-confidence, a sense of purpose in life, self-acceptance, forgiveness of one’s mistakes, and a positive self-image [31]. On the other hand, these same beliefs can generate negative effects, such as guilt, self-doubt, anxiety and depression, especially when they lead to excessive self-criticism or when they are interpreted from a more punitive perspective [32].

Self-control

Self-control is defined as the ability of individuals to regulate their thoughts, emotions and behaviors in order to achieve desired goals or adapt to social norms [33]. It is also defined as the ability to regulate internal responses, suppress undesirable behavioral tendencies, and refrain from acting on them [34]. It is a crucial skill in self-regulation, allowing individuals to resist immediate impulses and maintain sustained efforts to achieve long-term goals [35]. This ability has a significant impact on many aspects of life, including self-esteem and mental health [36].

Self-control integrates several dimensions, including emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects, and is an essential construct for self-regulation. In the context of our study, assessed by the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS), two main dimensions were identified: self-discipline and impulse control [37]. Self-discipline reflects the ability to plan and stick with long-term goals, maintaining effort and focus even in the face of distractions or demotivation. Impulse control focuses on the ability to resist temptation and manage impulses, inhibiting automatic behaviors or desires that may interfere with personal or social goals [37]. In addition, self-control includes components related to emotional management, such as the ability to manage negative emotions, such as anger or frustration, and to maintain a positive attitude in the face of challenges and adversity [36]. Planning and organizing are also part of this construct, representing the ability to set clear goals, prioritize tasks, and structure time effectively to optimize performance [38]. This integration of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions underscores the importance of self-control in regulating behaviors and emotions, as well as in persevering in the face of obstacles, and highlights its impact on multiple domains of life, including self-esteem.

Self-control and self-esteem

Several studies focuses on the association between self-control and subjective well-being, rather than focusing directly on people’s self-esteem [39, 40]. Subjective well-being, understood as a global assessment of life in terms of satisfaction and positive emotional experiences, has been consistently associated with high levels of self-control [41]. Greater self-control tends to be associated with fewer negative emotions, such as stress and frustration, and greater life satisfaction [34]. This is because self-control facilitates emotional regulation and the ability to cope with challenging situations, thus contributing to overall well-being.

However, although less studied, the link between self-control and self-esteem is also significant [42, 43]. Self-control, as the ability to maintain sustained effort towards goals, fosters positive perceptions of self. In fact, achieving personal goals, meeting expectations and managing emotions effectively are experiences that enhance self-esteem because they increase perceptions of competence, personal worth and belief in one’s abilities [44]. In addition, a person with high self-control may avoid impulsive behaviours that compromise his or her self-image, which could contribute to stronger self-esteem. Thus, people with higher self-control not only have greater subjective well-being, but also higher self-esteem [34]. This link can be explained by the sense of achievement and self-discipline that characterizes people with good self-control, which reinforces a positive self-image. In addition, a longitudinal research has suggested that the relationship between self-control and self-esteem is bidirectional; that is, high self-esteem also facilitates the development of greater self-control by providing a stable emotional base from which to regulate behaviors and emotions [23].

Moreover, both variables influence each other. On the one hand, self-control contributes directly to self-esteem by enabling people to achieve their goals, avoid potentially harmful behaviors, and live up to their own personal standards [42, 43]. This sense of accomplishment and self-control reinforces a positive self-image and increases confidence in one’s abilities. On the other hand, high self-esteem can facilitate self-control by providing a stable emotional base and positive self-image that motivates people to regulate their behavior effectively. For example, some evidence suggests that people with higher self-esteem tend to be more committed to their goals and are more resilient in the face of temporary failures or setbacks [45]. This bidirectional interaction underscores how both variables are mutually reinforced in the development of sustainable psychological well-being.

The current study

The present study is grounded in the assumption that self-esteem, as a central dimension of psychological well-being, is shaped by both spiritual and personal regulatory factors. Attitudes toward religion offer individuals a source of identity, meaning, and emotional security, while self-control represents a personal capacity to align behaviors with long-term goals and internalized values. Drawing on theories of self-determination and self-regulation, we hypothesize that individuals with positive attitudes toward religion will show higher self-esteem, as their belief systems offer stability and purpose. Similarly, those with greater self-control are expected to experience higher self-esteem, due to increased perceptions of competence and consistency with personal standards. This conceptual model suggests a dual influence on self-esteem—both external (spiritual framework) and internal (self-regulatory capacity)—which we aim to examine in a culturally specific population where both religion and personal discipline are highly valued.

In this study, we focus on a sample of Peruvian Christians belonging to the Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA), a denomination known for its emphasis on health, moral discipline, and personal sanctity [46–48]. Peruvian Christians, particularly Adventists, live in a context where religious identity strongly intersects with community life, education, and lifestyle practices [46]. Compared to other Christian populations in Latin America and globally, SDA members in Peru are characterized by high levels of church participation, adherence to religious norms (e.g., Sabbath-keeping, dietary practices) [48], and active involvement in faith-based initiatives [49]. While these core values are shared across SDA communities worldwide, cultural expressions of religiosity in Peru may be shaped by local traditions, socioeconomic challenges, and collective resilience, potentially influencing the way faith and self-perception are experienced [47]. Including this context provides a more meaningful interpretation of the findings within a cross-cultural psychological framework.

The present study aims to examine the relationship between attitudes toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem in a sample of Peruvian Christians. Although these variables have been studied in other contexts, there is a significant lack of research analyzing these associations in Latin American populations, particularly in Peru, where religion occupies a central place in daily life and in the construction of personal and collective identity. This approach is relevant to understanding how individual and contextual factors interact to influence psychological well-being in this population. The study utilizes a cross-sectional, explanatory design to assess the relationship between positive attitudes toward religion and self-control with self-esteem. By integrating these two dimensions—one spiritual and the other self-regulatory—this research provides empirical insight into psychological resources that support self-worth in culturally religious settings. The findings are expected to inform both theoretical frameworks and practical interventions aimed at enhancing psychological well-being within Christian communities.

Materials and methods

Design and participants

The research design was non-experimental, cross-sectional, and predictive. This approach enabled the evaluation of the relationship between attitudes toward religion and self-control (independent variables) and self-esteem (dependent variable) in a selected sample. The sample consisted of 297 members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, selected through non-probability purposive sampling. Participants were invited through official church WhatsApp groups and email lists, using digital flyers with a link to the survey hosted on Google Forms. The data were collected in the Spanish language. Before accessing the questionnaire, participants were required to read an informed consent form that explained the study’s purpose and inclusion criteria. They had to confirm that they were baptized members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, 18 years or older, and currently residing in Peru. To reduce the possibility of ineligible participation, responses were monitored for duplicate entries and incomplete data. Additionally, participants were asked to indicate the name of their local church and city, which allowed researchers to verify consistency with the stated affiliation. Data were collected between October and November 2024.

To determine the required sample size, the statistical program G*Power 3.1.9.7 was used [50], which calculated that a minimum of 107 participants would be sufficient to detect statistically significant effects with a significance level of α = 0.05, a statistical power of 0.95, and a moderate effect size (f² = 0.15), considering at least two predictors. However, to enhance the robustness of the analysis and ensure more representative and generalizable results, a larger sample of 297 participants was included.

Ethical considerations

This research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidad Peruana Unión [Approval number: 2024-CEUPeU-040], ensuring adherence to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were informed about the study objectives, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time. Additionally, anonymity and confidentiality of the collected data were guaranteed. Prior to participation, all individuals provided informed consent in digital format, accessible through the platform used for data collection.

Measuring instruments

Religious attitude scale

The Attitudes Toward Religion Scale (EAR) was employed to assess participants’ religious attitudes. Originally developed in Mexico by Orozco-Parra and Domínguez-Espinosa [17], the scale was adapted and validated for the Peruvian context by Rivera-Encinas and Huarcaya-Victoria [51]. The final version comprises 14 items, designed to measure both positive and negative attitudes toward religion, divided into two main factors. The scale employs a Likert-type response format with options ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree.’ An example item from the scale is: ‘God helps me to lead a better life.’ The EAR has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties. In its Peruvian version, a Cronbach’s alpha of.951 indicated high internal consistency. Additionally, exploratory factor analysis revealed that the 14 items explain 70.1% of the total variance, divided into two main factors: ‘positive attitudes toward religion’ and ‘negative attitudes toward religion.’ In the present study, the scale showed adequate internal consistency, with a McDonald’s Omega coefficient of.838.

Brief self-control scale

The Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) was utilized to assess self-control levels among study participants. Originally developed by Tangney et al. [34], this scale has been widely employed in research due to its strong association with various positive psychological outcomes. The short version of the scale consists of 13 items that assess both impulse control and self-discipline. The BSCS uses a Likert-type response format, with options ranging from ‘1’ (not at all like me) to ‘5’ (totally like me). An example item from the scale is: ‘I am good at resisting temptation.’ The total score is obtained by summing the responses, with higher scores reflecting greater levels of self-control. Confirmatory factor analysis of the BSCS demonstrated that both the unidimensional and bifactor models showed acceptable fit indices. For the unidimensional model (1 F-CR), the fit indices were as follows: TLI = 0.985, CFI = 0.988, SRMR = 0.065, and RMSEA = 0.098 (90% CI: 0.089–0.108) [34]. On the other hand, the bifactor model with independent clustering (2FIC-CR) demonstrated a superior fit, with the following indices: TLI = 0.990, CFI = 0.992, SRMR = 0.054, and RMSEA = 0.078 (90% CI: 0.068–0.088) [34]. In the current study, the scale obtained a McDonald Ômega coefficient of 0.635.

Rosenberg self-esteem scale

“The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), originally developed by Rosenberg in 1965, is one of the most widely used instruments for assessing global self-esteem [8]. This scale consists of 10 items that evaluate feelings of respect, acceptance, and self-worth. Half of the items are positively worded, while the other half are negatively worded. The RES employs a Likert-type response format, with options ranging from ‘1’ (strongly disagree) to ‘4’ (strongly agree) [8, 11]. Example items include statements such as: ‘I have a positive attitude towards myself’ and ‘Sometimes I feel that I am not good at anything.’ To calculate the total score, responses to negatively worded items are reversed. Final scores range from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-esteem. In terms of its psychometric properties, the RES has demonstrated high internal consistency in various studies, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients typically ranging from 0.77 to 0.88 [11]. In this study, the scale achieved a McDonald’s Omega coefficient of.675, indicating acceptable internal consistency.

In addition to the main study variables, sociodemographic data (sex, age, marital status, and educational level) were collected. These variables were included for exploratory purposes to assess whether background characteristics significantly influenced the constructs under study.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted to address the study objectives. Descriptive statistics included the calculation of means and standard deviations for the main study variables, while sociodemographic variables were summarized using absolute and relative frequencies. The relationships between the main variables were assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Additionally, Student’s t-test was employed to compare differences in self-esteem levels across specific sociodemographic categories. Lastly, multiple regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the predictive power of attitudes toward religion and self-control on self-esteem. This model allowed for the evaluation of the relative impact of each predictor while simultaneously controlling for the effects of the other variables included in the analysis. A statistical significance level of p <.05 was set. Data processing and analysis were performed using R Studio (version 4.2.1), SPSS (version 29) and Jamovi 2.3.28.

Results

Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the study sample, showing a mean age of 31.64 years (SD = 13.57). Among the participants, 60.9% were women, and 39.1% were men. Regarding marital status, 66.3% of the respondents were single, while 33.7% had a partner. In terms of educational level, 76.4% of the participants had higher education, while 23.6% had completed only secondary education.

Table 1.

Description of sociodemographic variables (n = 297)

	n	%
Age	M = 31.64	SD = 13.57
Sex
Male	116	39.1
Female	181	60.9
Marital Status
With a partner	100	33.7
Single	197	66.3
Educational Level
Higher education	227	76.4
Secondary education	70	23.6

M Mean, SD Standard Deviation

Table 2 presents the analysis of the variables attitude toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem based on sociodemographic variables. No statistically significant differences were observed according to sex or educational level in any of the variables (p >.05). With regard to marital status, significant differences were found. Participants with a partner scored higher in attitude toward religion (p =.015, d = 0.301, 95% CI [0.445, 4.071]), self-control (p =.011, d = 0.316, 95% CI [0.402, 3.010]), and self-esteem (p =.040, d = 0.253, 95% CI [0.039, 1.668]) compared to single participants. Finally, age showed significant differences in all three variables. Adults aged 30 to 72 years reported higher scores in attitude toward religion (p =.004, d = 0.342, 95% CI [−4.290, − 0.824]), self-control (p =.042, d = 0.240, 95% CI [−2.557, − 0.045]), and self-esteem (p =.035, d = 0.250, 95% CI [−1.624, − 0.061]) compared to young adults aged 18 to 29 years.

Table 2.

Analysis of attitude toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem based on sociodemographic variables

		Attitude Toward Religion	Self-Control	Self-Esteem
General (M, SD)		75.89 (7.57)	43.54 (5.45)	32.73 (3.39)
Sexa	Male (M, SD)	75.12 (7.98)	43.05 (5.05)	32.58 (3.25)
	Female (M, SD)	76.39 (7.27)	43.85 (5.68)	32.83 (3.48)
	t	−1.409	−1.234	− 0.636
	p	0.160	0.218	0.525
	CI	[−3.035, 0.502]	[−2,073, 0.475]	[−1.051, 0.537]
	d	0.168	0.147	0.076
Marital statusa	With a partner (M, SD)	77.39 (6.88)	44.67 (5.55)	33.30 (3.57)
	Single (M, SD)	75.13 (7.80)	42.96 (5.32)	32.45 (3.27)
	t	2.450	2.574	2.062
	p	0.015*	0.011*	0.040*
	CI	[0.445, 4.071]	[0.402, 3.010]	[0.039, 1.668]
	d	0.301	0.316	0.253
Educational level	Higher education (M, SD)	75.85 (7.87)	43.60 (5.53)	32.89 (3.38)
	Secondary education	76.01 (6.55)	43.33 (5.21)	32.23 (3.40)
	t	− 0.154	0.369	1.430
	p	0.878	0.713	0.154
	CI	[−2.199, 1.880]	[−1.193, 1.743]	[− 0.249, 1.572]
	d	0.021	0.050	0.195
Agea	18 and 29 years old (M, SD)	74.83 (8.16)	43.00 (5.33)	32.39 (3.29)
	30 and 72 years old (M, SD)	77.39 (6.37)	44.30 (5.55)	33.23 (3.48)
	t	−2.904	−2.038	−2.123
	p	0.004**	0.042*	0.035*
	CI	[−4.290, − 0.824]	[−2.557, − 0.045]	[−1.624, − 0.061]
	d	0.342	0.240	0.250

M Mean, SD Standard Deviation, t Student’s T^a, CI 95% Confidence Interval, p p-value, d la d de Cohen

 *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001

Table 3 presents the correlation analysis between the variables attitude toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem. A positive and significant correlation was found between attitude toward religion and self-esteem (r =.361, p <.001, CI [0.258, 0.456]). Additionally, self-control showed a positive and significant correlation with self-esteem (r =.442, p <.001, CI [0.346, 0.530]).

Table 3.

Correlation analysis between attitude toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem

	Attitude Toward Religion	Self-Control	Self-Esteem
Attitude Toward Religion	-	0.348*** [0.244, − 0.444]	0.361*** [0.258, 0.456]
Self-Control		-	0.442*** [0.346, 0.530]
Self-Esteem			-

*** p <.01; [x, x] = 95% Confidence Interval

Table 4 presents the multiple regression analysis, where Model 2 demonstrates a good overall and individual fit (adjusted R² = 0.239, F = 47.606, p <.001), indicating that both attitudes toward religion and self-control positively and significantly influence self-esteem. Self-control (β = 0.360, p <.001, CI [0.254, 0.467]) emerges as the most influential variable in the model, followed by attitudes toward religion (β = 0.236, p <.001, CI [0.130, 0.342]). Together, these two variables account for 23.9% of the variability in self-esteem.

Table 4.

Multiple linear regression model

	Unstandardized coefficients		Standardized coefficients	t	CI (β)	p
	B	Standard error	β
Model 1
(Constant)	14.938	2.048		7.294		p <.001
Self-Control	0.220	0.034	0.354	6.512	[0.247–461]	p <.001
Attitude Toward Religion	0.099	0.025	0.220	3.982	[0.111–0.329]	p <.001
Sex	− 0.004	0.357	− 0.001	− 0.010	[−0.102 – 0.100]	0.992
Marital status	0.166	0.476	0.023	0.348	[−0.108 – 0.154]	0.728
Educational level	− 0.634	0.405	− 0.079	−1.566	[−0.179 – 0.020]	0.119
Age	0.024	0.017	0.096	1.414	[−0.038 – 0.230]	0.158
Model 2
(Constant)	14.957	1.918		7.799		p <.001
Self-Control	0.224	0.034	0.360	6.662	[0.254–0.467]	p <.001
Attitude Toward Religion	0.106	0.024	0.236	4.364	[0.130–0.342]	p <.001

Model 1: Dependent variable (self-esteem): adjusted R² = 0.242, F = 16.733, p <.001

Model 2: Dependent variable (self-esteem): adjusted R² = 0.239, F = 47.606, p <.001. CI = 95% Confidence Interval; Men, participants with a partner, and those with higher education were coded with a value of 0

Discussion

Self-esteem is a crucial component of psychological well-being. Understanding the factors that influence self-esteem is essential, with self-control and attitudes toward religion emerging as particularly impactful variables. Self-control can enhance a sense of competence and personal efficacy, which in turn reinforces self-esteem [35]. “Attitudes toward religion can positively influence self-esteem by offering a framework of meaning, purpose, and belonging, thereby enhancing a sense of self-worth [25]. In this study, we examined how these two variables are associated with self-esteem, aiming to provide a deeper understanding within the context of a group of Peruvian Christians. The main findings indicate that attitudes toward religion contribute significantly to the model, suggesting that more positive attitudes toward religion are associated with higher levels of self-esteem. Similarly, self-control is significantly associated with self-esteem and emerges as the variable with the highest predictive weight. Together, these two variables account for 23.9% of the variability in self-esteem.

The present findings should also be interpreted considering the cultural and religious background of the participants. The sample consisted of Peruvian members of the SDA, a Protestant denomination characterized by strong emphasis on personal discipline, moral behavior, and community belonging. In Peru, SDA communities are known for their active engagement in spiritual practices, such as Sabbath-keeping, church participation, and health-promoting behaviors, which are closely tied to religious identity. These characteristics may intensify the role that both religious attitudes and self-control play in shaping self-perception and psychological well-being, compared to Christian populations in other Latin American countries or global contexts where religious practices may be less central in daily life.

Religious attitudes play a pivotal role in shaping and sustaining self-esteem in individuals [52]. Numerous studies have examined how religiosity influences self-perception, revealing both positive and negative effects depending on various factors [30, 32, 52]. Our study demonstrated that attitudes toward religion are significantly associated with self-esteem, suggesting that religious beliefs and participation in spiritual practices contribute to the enhancement of self-worth. This finding aligns with previous research indicating that religion can serve as a valuable psychological resource, offering a framework of meaning, emotional support, and social belonging that reinforces self-esteem [21, 28, 32]. For instance, a study conducted in a non-religious context found that regular prayer, spirituality, low levels of religious conflict, and a positive perception of God were associated with higher self-esteem [52]. Similarly, Szcześniak et al. [32] suggest that how individuals experience and perceive religion—whether as a source of comfort or conflict—directly affects their self-esteem. Conversely, those who view religion as a cause of fear, stress, or internal conflict tend to exhibit lower levels of self-esteem and a diminished subjective sense of personal worth [32].

Notably, a positive relationship with religion is often linked to higher self-esteem, stemming from feelings of divine acceptance, forgiveness, and a sense of purpose in life [25]. This connection is reinforced through religious practices and involvement in faith communities, which offer social support networks that can enhance self-perception [53]. Feeling accepted and valued within a religious group not only promotes a sense of belonging but also contributes to the development of healthy self-esteem [52, 54]. In fact, emotional support from church members and a close personal relationship with God serve as indicators of church-based social ties, which are, in turn, associated with a stronger sense of self-esteem [55]. The results of the current study align with existing literature and highlight the importance of religious attitudes as a protective factor in the development of self-esteem, particularly in cultural contexts where religion plays a central role, such as in Peru [56]. These attitudes can significantly contribute to psychological well-being, functioning not only as a belief system but also as an emotional and social resource that promotes high self-esteem [3].

Contrary to previous research suggesting a positive relationship between religiosity and self-esteem [21, 28, 32], a study by Neely-Prado et al. [25] found no evidence of a significant effect of religiosity on self-esteem. While many studies report a positive association between religiosity and self-esteem, this relationship is not always consistent. In this case, the data may indicate that religiosity alone does not guarantee a more positive self-perception. This could be because self-esteem is more strongly influenced by other individual factors, such as personal achievements, coping skills, or social support, rather than religiosity itself [28, 32, 54].

Another notable finding of the current study is the significant association between self-control and self-esteem, suggesting that the ability to regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviors plays a key role in fostering a positive self-perception. This finding aligns with previous studies that have shown a positive relationship between self-control and higher self-esteem, as self-control enables individuals to achieve personal goals, overcome challenges, and avoid impulsive behaviors that might negatively impact their self-image [42–44]. For example, Woessner and Schneider [43] highlight the complex relationship between self-control and self-esteem in a non-religious context. This relationship can be explained through several mechanisms. Firstly, self-control facilitates successful self-regulation [42], which leads to a sense of accomplishment and personal efficacy, ultimately strengthening self-esteem [57]. Secondly, self-control aids in avoiding impulsive behaviors that could lead to negative outcomes, such as interpersonal conflicts or failures in achieving goals, thereby minimizing the risk of adverse effects on self-esteem [58]. Additionally, the ability to maintain focus on long-term goals and effectively manage negative emotions enhances emotional resilience, which further contributes to a more positive self-perception. Notably, this relationship is mutually reinforcing [14]. The association between self-control and self-esteem observed in the current study not only corroborates existing literature but also highlights how self-control serves as a crucial psychological resource for sustaining healthy self-esteem. This connection is particularly significant in contexts where emotional and social demands necessitate effective management of personal resources.

Finally, the finding that attitudes toward religion and self-control account for 23.9% of the variability in self-esteem underscores the importance of these variables as key factors in shaping a positive self-perception. This percentage suggests that nearly a quarter of the changes in participants’ self-esteem levels can be attributed to the combined influence of their religious attitudes and self-control, highlighting their significance within the context studied. The significance of this result lies in the complementary interaction between the two variables. However, while 23.9% of the variance explains a substantial portion of self-esteem, this finding also highlights that other factors—such as social relationships, mental health, and life experiences—may play a role in shaping self-esteem. Nevertheless, this finding reinforces the notion that both individual capabilities and religious beliefs significantly influence the perception of personal worth, particularly in cultural contexts where religion and self-regulation play a central role in daily life. For example, a previous study [43], found an association between self-control and self-esteem in bivariate analyses; however, this relationship did not remain significant in regression analyses when other factors, such as attention, cognitive variables, and a history of family problems, were taken into account. This suggests that the link between self-control and self-esteem may be influenced by broader contextual and biographical factors, such as adverse childhood experiences [43].

Public health implications

The findings of this study have important implications for public health, particularly in designing strategies to promote psychological well-being in specific populations. The positive relationship between self-control, attitudes toward religion, and self-esteem highlights the need for interventions that strengthen these variables as key protective factors. This is especially relevant in cultural contexts where religion plays a central role in people’s lives, such as in Peru, and where self-regulation skills can enhance emotional and social resilience. First, strengthening self-control can be incorporated into mental health education and promotion programs. Workshops and training sessions focused on emotional regulation, impulse management, and goal-setting skills could enhance individuals’ self-regulation abilities while also positively impacting their self-esteem. These interventions would be especially useful in adolescents and young adults, who are at critical stages in the development of these skills.

Additionally, the results underscore the potential of religion as a community resource for promoting well-being. Religious institutions could take an active role in creating safe and supportive spaces that cultivate positive attitudes toward religion while reinforcing a sense of belonging, acceptance, and purpose. These efforts can lead to improved self-esteem and well-being among participants, particularly in vulnerable or marginalized communities. Additionally, public policy should prioritize the inclusion of spirituality and self-regulation in comprehensive mental health programs. This could involve collaboration among religious leaders, mental health professionals, and educators to design culturally relevant strategies that address the emotional and spiritual needs of diverse populations. For example, programs that integrate mindfulness activities, self-control techniques, and spiritual exploration can effectively enhance self-worth and mitigate risks associated with low self-esteem. Finally, the finding that self-control and attitudes toward religion explain a significant proportion of the variability in self-esteem underscores the importance of considering these variables in clinical assessments and psychological therapies. Health professionals could incorporate tools to measure self-control and attitudes toward religion as relevant indicators to identify areas for intervention and tailor treatment strategies.

Limitations and future research

Despite the significant findings and contributions of this study, several limitations should be considered when interpreting the results. First, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to establish causal relationships between the variables studied. Although significant associations were identified between attitudes toward religion, self-control, and self-esteem, it is not possible to determine whether these relationships are bidirectional or unidirectional. Future research could utilize longitudinal or experimental designs to investigate the causality and direction of these relationships. Second, the sample was selected through non-probability purposive sampling and consisted exclusively of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. This limits the generalizability of the findings to other religious populations or different cultural contexts. Future research should incorporate more diverse samples regarding religious affiliation, socioeconomic status, and geographic location to determine whether the findings hold across different contexts.

Additionally, data collection was conducted using online forms, which may have excluded participants without internet access or with limited skills in completing digital questionnaires. This could introduce a bias in the sample, favoring individuals with greater access to and familiarity with technology. Future studies could employ hybrid data collection methods (online and face-to-face) to achieve a more representative sample. On the other hand, although the scales used (EAR, BSCS, and RSES) demonstrated excellent psychometric properties, the exclusive reliance on self-report measures introduces the potential for biases, such as the social desirability effect or errors in subjective perception. Future studies could incorporate objective measures or method triangulation to further validate the results. Finally, although the model explained 23.9% of the variability in self-esteem, a considerable percentage remains unexplained, which may be related to other factors not considered in this study, such as social support, resilience, or emotional well-being. Therefore, it is recommended that future research explore these additional variables to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing self-esteem. Finally, future studies are encouraged to use hierarchical regression models to assess the incremental contribution of sociodemographic and psychological variables in explaining self-esteem.

Conclusions

The findings of this study showed that attitudes toward religion and self-control are positively and significantly associated with self-esteem. Among the two, self-control emerged as the strongest predictor of self-esteem. Together, these variables explain 23.9% of the variability in self-esteem. These results carry important implications for both public and spiritual health in populations with similar characteristics. Programs aimed at strengthening self-control and fostering positive religious attitudes may prove effective in promoting higher levels of self-esteem.

Authors’ contributions

JMZC: Contributed to the conceptualization and design of the study, data collection and initial drafting of the manuscript. DJ-A: Led the statistical analysis, interpretation of the results and revised the manuscript. JS: Made significant contributions to the methodology, writing of the first draft and refinement of the manuscript, as well as supervising the final stages of its preparation. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript and are responsible for all aspects of the work, ensuring its accuracy and completeness.

Funding

The research was carried out with the funding of the researchers.

Data availability

The data sets generated to support the findings of this study are not publicly available, but can be requested from the corresponding author.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidad Peruana Unión [Approval number: 2024-CEUPeU-040], ensuring adherence to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were informed about the study objectives, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time. Additionally, anonymity and confidentiality of the collected data were guaranteed. Prior to participation, all individuals provided informed consent in digital format, accessible through the platform used for data collection.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.