The expanding scope of GLP-1 receptor agonists: Six uses beyond diabetes

Abstract

Purpose of Review.

This review summarizes recent advances in the clinical applications of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) beyond their established role in glycemic control for type 2 diabetes (T2DM).

Recent Findings.

Originally developed for glycemic control in T2DM, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) are now being utilized for a range of additional diseases and conditions. Strong evidence supports their efficacy in inducing clinically meaningful weight loss in individuals with overweight or obesity. Further studies have demonstrated cardiovascular benefits, kidney-protective effects, and therapeutic potential in obesity-related conditions such as obstructive sleep apnea and metabolic-associated steatotic liver disease. Emerging data also suggest possible roles in treating substance use disorders, including alcohol and nicotine dependence, though findings remain preliminary and variable. Despite these promising developments, GLP-1RAs are associated with side effects and high costs, contributing to variability in patient access.

Summary.

The therapeutic scope of GLP-1 receptor agonists extends beyond diabetes to multiple other conditions. Broader adoption requires careful evaluation of safety, cost, and evidence for less-established indications.

INTRODUCTION

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) are a class of injectable and oral medications originally developed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). These medications mimic the actions of the endogenous incretin hormone GLP-1 by enhancing glucose-dependent insulin secretion, suppressing glucagon release, delaying gastric emptying, and promoting satiety.[1] Incretin hormones also exert effects across multiple organ systems, including cardiovascular, renal, and skeletal systems.[1] Owing to these pleiotropic mechanisms, the clinical use of GLP-1RAs has expanded exponentially, both for diabetes and for a broadening spectrum of diseases and conditions.[2]

Obesity plays a central role in the pathogenesis and progression of T2DM, yet many traditional glucose-lowering therapies are associated with weight gain.[3] The observation that GLP-1RAs not only improve glycemic control but also result in significant weight loss marked a paradigm shift in diabetes pharmacotherapy, prompting investigation into their therapeutic potential in individuals without diabetes to treat obesity and related comorbidities.[4] Subsequently, large-scale cardiovascular and kidney outcome trials have demonstrated additional benefits of GLP-1RAs, further supporting their use in high-risk populations independent of diabetes status.[4]

These trials resulted in a rapid evolution of the clinical landscape for GLP-1RAs in the last decade, with growing evidence supporting their role in treating obesity, cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and other metabolic-related disorders.[5–20] This expansion reflects both their favorable efficacy profile and their broader physiological effects. As research continues to elucidate additional mechanisms and clinical applications, the therapeutic scope of GLP-1RAs is expected to further diversify.[21] This review summarizes emerging and established evidence on the use of GLP-1RAs beyond glycemic control in diabetes, highlighting current indications, investigational uses, and future directions for this evolving class of agents.

OVERVIEW OF GLP-1RAs

The Table provides a summary of dosing, frequency, route, cost, adverse effects, and potential uses for currently available GLP-1RAs. The first GLP-1RA, exenatide, was synthesized to mimic hormones discovered in Gila monster saliva and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2005, launching a new era in diabetes pharmacotherapy.[4, 22] In the two decades since exenatide’s approval, a number of additional GLP-1RAs have joined the class. Dulaglutide is a long-acting GLP-1RA used for T2DM with demonstrated cardiovascular benefits.[10] Liraglutide, another long-acting GLP-1RA, is used for T2DM and obesity management and is under investigation for Alzheimer’s disease and metabolic-associated hepatic steatosis.[4] Lixisenatide, a short-acting GLP-1RA, shows comparable efficacy to exenatide and liraglutide for T2DM management, and is now combined with insulin glargine.[23] Semaglutide, available in injectable and oral forms, has demonstrated benefits in promoting weight loss, reducing risk of cardiovascular events, and slowing progression of diabetic CKD.[24] Finally, tirzepatide is a dual agonist for receptors of GLP and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), a hormone released from the intestines in response to macronutrients.[25] These two mechanisms of action have synergistic glucose-lowering and weight loss effects with lower side effect rates than other GLP-1RAs.[25] Tirzepatide has also been shown to result in blood pressure reduction, obstructive sleep apnea control, and improved cholesterol in T2DM patients.[5]

Table.

An overview of Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists[87]

Medication	Dose, Frequency, Route	US Median 30-day AWPa/NADACb [88, 89]	Medication-specific adverse events and side effects	Uses
dulaglutide	0.75 – 4.5mg subcutaneous (SQ) weekly	AWP: $1173 NADAC: $941	Potentially increased risk of systemic hypersensitivity[90]	Type 2 diabetes Meletus (T2DM), Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events (MACE)c
exenatide	Immediate Release (IR): 5 – 10mcg SQ twice daily after meal Extended Release (ER): 2mg SQ weekly	IR AWP: $1,020 NADAC: $818 ER AWP: $993 NADAC: $1,101	Potentially increased risk of injection site reaction. Associated with increased calcitonin release (rodent studies). IR exenatide more likely to produce nausea. Increased risk of fracture[90] Reports of drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia[91]	T2DM
liraglutide	T2DM: 0.6d - 1.8mg SQ weekly For weight loss: up to 3 mg SQ weekly	AWP: $929 NADAC: $1,077	Associated with thyroid medullary tumors in rodent studies[90]	T2DM, weight management, eMetabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatohepatitis (MASH) (off-label)
lixisenatide	10 – 20 mcg SQ daily	Unavailable in the US	Potentially increased risk of injection site reaction and severe anaphylaxis[90]	T2DM
semaglutidee	Injectable 0.25 – 2 mg SQ weekly Tablet 3 – 14 mg by mouth daily	Injection AWP: $1,162 NADAC: $933 Tablet AWP: $1,283 NADAC: $1,030	Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, ileus[92] Reported pancreatitis, gallbladder disease, increased risk of retinopathy complications in older patients and those with > 10 years of T2DM[11] Associated with thyroid C-cell tumors in rodent studies	T2DM, MACE, weight loss,[93] and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in T2DM[24] Studies support benefit for MASH[20, 94] and renal outcomes in CKD [95] in individuals without diabetes.
tirzepatidef	2.5 – 15 mg SQ weekly	AWP: $1,283 NADAC: $1,030	Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, ileus[96] Case reports of pancreatitis, gallbladder disease, and retinopathy[97, 98] Associated with thyroid C-cell tumors in rodent studies	T2DM, weight loss,[93] obstructive sleep apnea (OSA)[17] Under investigation for effects on MACE, heart failure, CKD, MASH[99, 100]

^aAverage Wholesale Price;

^bNational Average Drug Acquistion Cost;

^cin patients with concurrent T2DM;

^dtransitional dose for side effect reduction but without glycemic benefit;

^eno renal dose adjustment required;

^fdual mechanism of action: glucagon-like peptide 1 agonist and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide analogue

FDA-APPROVED USES OF GLP-1 RECEPTOR AGONISTS

GLP-1RA are FDA-approved for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, with a meta-analysis finding an average decrease in HbA1c ranging from 0.61% for lixisenatide to 2.1% for tirzepatide.[26] In addition, GLP-1RAs have been approved for three additional non-diabetes indications: weight management, cardiovascular risk reduction, and obstructive sleep apnea. The figure summarizes FDA-approved and investigational non-diabetes indications for GLP-1RA.

Weight management

The pronounced weight loss seen in clinical trials and post-marketing surveillance of GLP-1RAs led to early interest in their use for treatment of obesity in populations without diabetes.[27] Obesity is defined by the World Health Organization as a multifactorial chronic condition involving excess fat deposits and potentially impairing health. Obesity is a major risk factor for chronic diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers.[28, 29] Globally, overweight and obesity have doubled in prevalence since 1980 and are estimated to contribute to more than $700 billion in annual healthcare costs.[28, 30] As evidence has mounted for the weight loss effectiveness of GLP-1RAs, their use has grown accordingly. A 2025 claims analysis found that the proportion of U.S. adults with a GLP-1 prescription for any diagnosis rose from 0.9% in 2019 to 4% in 2024.[31] A recent poll found that 38% of Americans taking GLP-1RAs did so for the sole purpose of weight loss.[32]

Liraglutide was approved by the FDA for weight management in individuals without diabetes in 2014, and was followed by semaglutide in 2021 and tirzepatide in 2023.[22, 27] The weight loss effect of GLP-1RA is thought to be multimodal.[33, 34] GLP-1RAs reduce appetite by stimulating (1) the secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) from L cells in the small intestine, (2) neurons producing GLP-1 to activate GLP-1 receptors in the hypothalamus and hindbrain, and (3) gastric mechano-receptor signals, triggered by food intake, activating the vagus nerve to relay information to the NTS.[35, 36] GLP-1 action delays gastric emptying and modulates gut motility, reducing hunger, food intake, and ultimately promoting weight loss.[33, 34]

A meta-analysis of 40 randomized-controlled trials and one nonrandomized clinical controlled trial evaluated the effects of four GLP-1RAs (efpeglenatide, exenatide, liraglutide, semaglutide) on body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio, and body fat percentage.[6] Each of the four GLP-1RAs significantly reduced body weight, BMI, and WC compared to placebo or metformin (p<0.0001). Semaglutide demonstrated the greatest weight loss; liraglutide significantly decreased body fat and waist-to-hip ratio (p=0.003), and exenatide reduced waist-to-hip ratio but had minimal weight loss benefits.[6] In the STEP1 study, adults with obesity without diabetes receiving semaglutide 2.4mg plus lifestyle interventions had a mean weight loss of 14.9% from baseline in addition to improved fasting glucose and lipids, increased physical activity, and decreased fat mass.[7] The SURMOUNT-1 trial demonstrated that tirzepatide 5mg, 10mg, and 15mg caused significant improvement in weight, total body fat mass, lipids, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and fasting insulin levels.[5]

Cardiovascular disease risk reduction

Diabetes represents a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease; as a result, modern diabetes therapies are increasingly evaluated for their cardiovascular risks and benefits. Cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOTs) typically assess the risk of cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction (MI), and non-fatal stroke, collectively known as three-point major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). Early CVOTs on GLP-1RAs, such as the LEADER, Harmony Outcomes, REWIND, and SUSTAIN-6 trials, focused on patients with T2DM and demonstrated the cardioprotective effects of these agents, including liraglutide, albiglutide, dulaglutide, and semaglutide.[8–11]

The potential cardiovascular benefits of GLP-1RAs in patients without diabetes remain an active area of research. Meta-analyses in diabetic populations have found a correlation between reductions in HbA1c and GLP-1RA-mediated MACE risk reduction.[37, 38] The SELECT trial, which enrolled patients without diabetes but with pre-existing cardiovascular disease (CVD) and a BMI ≥27, found a significant reduction in MACE among those treated with semaglutide, leading to FDA approval for MACE reduction in individuals with established CVD.[18, 39] A meta-analysis incorporating SELECT and other CVOTs concluded that GLP-1RAs provide a significant MACE reduction in individuals without diabetes, though the reduction in individuals with diabetes is more pronounced.[12] These findings of benefit in populations without diabetes suggest that while the antihyperglycemic effects of GLP-1RAs likely contribute to MACE reduction, other mechanisms, such as systolic blood pressure reduction, likely also play a role.[40] Over time, clinical trials on GLP-1RA MACE reduction have shifted from a focus on secondary prevention, with over 80% of participants in earlier trials such as LEADER and SUSTAIN 6 having a history of established cardiovascular disease, to an emphasis on primary prevention in high risk participants, with less than a third of participants in REWIND having a history of established cardiovascular disease.[8, 10, 11, 41] While semaglutide is currently only FDA-approved for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease, a meta-analysis of GLP-1RA outcome trials found no significant difference in cardiovascular event relative risk reduction between use for primary versus secondary prevention.

Preclinical studies have identified that GLP-1 analogs such as exendin-4 and GLP-1RAs have direct anti-atherosclerotic and anti-inflammatory effects that may contribute to their cardio- and neuroprotective nature.[42] GLP-1RAs can also directly interact with cardiomyocytes, inducing receptor-mediated ischemic conditioning that decreases myocardial infarct size in test animals receiving GLP-1RAs.[43] Similar effects were noted in rodent brains, with liraglutide reducing cerebral infarct volume in rats.[42] Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) also identified that exenatide similarly reduced myocardial infarct size and liraglutide reduced the resulting necrotic area in human patients following a MI.[43] This may account for the reduced need for coronary revascularization in patients on GLP-1RAs.[12]

Despite the findings of overall improvements to composite cardiovascular outcomes, GLP-1RAs showed a non-significant trend toward reducing MI risk and did not affect rates of hospitalization for unstable angina in patients with diabetes.[12] These agents tend to have a stronger effect on stroke reduction in such patients, highlighting the complexity and variability of cardiovascular disease and its sequelae. Further elucidation of other pathways can help provide deeper understanding of cardiovascular disease and reveal targets for future therapies.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is characterized by recurrent partial or complete upper airway obstruction during sleep, leading to intermittent hypoxia and sleep fragmentation.[44] Obesity is a major risk factor for OSA, prompting investigation into whether GLP-1RAs could serve as a therapeutic option.[44] Clinical studies have shown that liraglutide reduces the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) in patients with OSA; however, comparative studies indicate that continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) remains significantly more effective than liraglutide when used as monotherapy.[45]

Two recent randomized controlled trials involving 469 participants without diabetes and with moderate to severe OSA demonstrated a 55% reduction in AHI with tirzepatide treatment.[17] These findings led to FDA approval of tirzepatide for moderate to severe OSA in December 2024.³⁵ The mechanisms underlying the effect of GLP-1 receptor agonists on OSA remain incompletely understood but are believed to be largely mediated through weight reduction.[45]

OFF-LABEL AND INVESTIGATIONAL USES OF GLP-1RAS

Investigational and off-label indications of GLP1-RAs are conditions that may have some evidence of benefit, but which currently lack FDA approval for a particular medication.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD)

GLP-1 RAs are FDA-approved for adults with T2DM and CKD and have shown efficacy in slowing kidney disease progression.[46] However, their use in treating kidney disease outside of T2DM remains under investigation. Early cardiovascular outcome trials of GLP-1RAs for diabetes included secondary kidney endpoints, typically defined by a 5-point composite renal outcome (CRO): increased urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio, new-onset macroalbuminuria, sustained decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), initiation of chronic renal replacement therapy, and renal death.[15, 16] In patients with T2DM, GLP-1RAs significantly reduced CRO incidence, primarily driven by an 18% reduction in new-onset macroalbuminuria.[47] More recently, the FLOW trial, a dedicated kidney outcome trial in patients with T2DM and CKD, was terminated early due to overwhelming efficacy and mortality benefit.[24] FLOW revealed that semaglutide reduced the risk of a composite kidney outcome by 24% compared to placebo.[24]

Emerging data suggest GLP-1RAs may also offer kidney benefits in populations without diabetes.[48] The SELECT trial demonstrated a reduced risk of persistent eGFR decline in patients with obesity and cardiovascular disease treated with semaglutide.[15] Additionally, a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled RCTs reported a slower decline in eGFR over one year in individuals with a baseline eGFR 30–60 mL/min/1.73m² treated with GLP-1RAs regardless of diabetes status.[12] These findings support the potential utility of GLP-1RAs in CKD patients without diabetes, and additional dedicated trials are underway to validate these outcomes in populations without diabetes.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), previously known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, is characterized by hepatic steatosis without external causes (e.g., alcohol use, viral hepatitis, medications).[49] MASLD is associated with various metabolic disorders and has a bidirectional relationship with T2DM, with either disease predisposing to the other.[36] Current management guidance from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases emphasizes lifestyle modification and optimization of comorbidities (e.g., diabetes, obesity) while acknowledging only a handful of drug therapies with proven benefit, including GLP-1RAs.[50]

In the phase 2 LEAN trial (n=26), liraglutide reduced steatosis, fibrosis, and histologic steatotic hepatitis in participants with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.[13] In a larger study of participants with MASLD on semaglutide, steatotic hepatitis resolution was dose-dependent.[20] A study of 1,197 patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis and fibrosis found nearly two-thirds (63.9%) had resolution of steatohepatitis without worsening fibrosis with weekly semaglutide 2.4mg, compared to only 34.25% in the placebo group.[19] In individuals without diabetes but with MASLD, a subgroup analysis of 26 MASLD studies identified that GLP-1RAs reduced hepatic steatosis while potentially improving liver enzymes.[14] While tirzepatide has been less studied for MASLD, it may reduce absolute liver fat.[5] Overall, GLP-1RAs may have use in patients with MASLD regardless of T2DM status, but their effects in patients with cirrhosis and significant fibrosis need further investigation.

Substance use disorders

An emerging area of interest for GLP-1RAs is their potential role in the treatment of substance use disorders, including alcohol and nicotine dependence.[51] GLP-1 is endogenously produced in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the brainstem and acts as a neuropeptide modulating reward and addiction pathways.[52, 53] GLP-1 receptors are expressed in key regions involved in reinforcement, including the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, where they modulate glutamatergic signaling, potentially influencing feeding and substance-related behaviors.[53, 54]

Though ongoing trials are actively investigating the role of GLP-1RAs in substance use disorders, the current evidence base is constrained by a small number of studies, limited randomized controlled trials, heterogeneity in agents evaluated, and variability in outcome measures.[55] One cohort study of U.S. veterans using GLP-1RAs for diabetes found significantly reduced hazard ratios for several substance use disorders compared to other glucose-lowering therapies, including alcohol (HR 0.89; 95% CI, 0.86–0.92), cannabis (HR 0.88; 95% CI, 0.83–0.93), stimulant (HR 0.84; 95% CI, 0.78–0.91), and opioid use disorders (HR 0.87; 95% CI, 0.82–0.92).[21] Another study revealed that semaglutide and tirzepatide were promising potential therapies in patients with obesity and comorbid alcohol use disorder,[56, 57] and dulaglutide use for smoking cessation did not improve tobacco abstinence but did reduce alcohol consumption.[58, 59] Studies of exenatide reported improved smoking cessation outcomes, though no benefit was observed for cocaine or alcohol use.[60–62] A comparative study found semaglutide associated with a significantly lower hazard ratio for nicotine use versus sitagliptin, empagliflozin, and glipizide.[63]

Additional GLP-1RA uses

Emerging off-label indications for GLP-1RAs continue to be identified, with future research potentially establishing a basis for their extended therapeutic application in a range of medical conditions. Liraglutide has demonstrated a reduction in the risk of knee surgery, cartilage loss velocity, and the need for intra-articular steroid injections in patients with obesity and knee osteoarthritis. However, it did not yield significant improvements in pain perception.[64] GLP-1 receptors have also been detected in the choroid plexus, and in a rodent model, their activation was shown to reduce cerebrospinal fluid secretion and intracranial pressure (ICP).[65] In patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) and obesity, exenatide, semaglutide, liraglutide have been associated with a reduction in the number of headache days, and exenatide significantly reduced ICP.[66, 67] Furthermore, animal studies have indicated potential benefits of GLP-1RAs in neuropathic pain and diabetic neuropathy, although clinical evidence remains inconsistent.[64] One study reported structural improvements in the nerves of patients with diabetic neuropathy receiving semaglutide or dulaglutide, while two other studies found no significant benefit in neuropathy symptoms with liraglutide and exenatide.[68–70]

Additional off-label uses under investigation include neurodegenerative disorders, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and osteoporosis. In comparison to sitagliptin, semaglutide has been shown to significantly reduce the 12-month risk of cognitive deficits, dementia, and epilepsy.[63] In PCOS, a meta-analysis indicated that exenatide and liraglutide exhibit stronger effects on insulin sensitivity and BMI reduction than metformin.[71] A 24-week study found that exenatide led to a significantly higher rate of spontaneous pregnancies and more regular menstrual cycles compared to metformin.[72] Although rapid weight loss in some contexts is associated with an increased risk of frailty fractures, GLP-1RAs may mitigate this effect.[73, 74] Both exenatide and dulaglutide were found to increase bone mineral density, while lixisenatide and liraglutide were associated with a reduced risk of fractures, suggesting differential effects of GLP-1RAs on bone metabolism.[74]

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

Side effects and adverse events related to GLP1-RAs

While GLP-1RAs are credited with a growing list of health benefits, they have also been associated with a wide variety of adverse effects that may vary among agents.[6, 21] Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, mild tachycardia, and injection site reactions.[75] A pooled analysis of 33 clinical trials (n=13,548) found an increased risk of treatment discontinuation due to gastrointestinal effects such as nausea and vomiting.[6] Potential adverse events include pancreatitis, cholelithiasis, and dehydration.[76] Rodent studies and one observational study in humans have raised concerns about GLP-1RA’s impact on thyroid cancer risk; however, randomized controlled trials and a large international cohort study have shown no increases in thyroid cancer risk in humans.[77–79] Isolated study findings have also raised concerns about ocular adverse events, including retinopathy and non-arthritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION).[11, 80] However, to date, meta-analyses have failed to find associations between GLP-1RAs and NAION, and only albiglutide, a GLP-1RA discontinued in 2017, has been associated with an increased risk of retinopathy.[80, 81] In adults 66 years and older with diabetes, a cohort study found a two-fold increase in risk for neovascular age-related macular degeneration in those using GLP-1RAs for one year or more.[82]

Accessibility

Despite the expanding indications and potential therapeutic benefits of GLP-1RAs, disparities in cost-related access may hinder their utilization in populations that stand to benefit the most.[83] In the U.S., individuals identifying as Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black—groups with higher obesity prevalence—demonstrate significantly lower initiation rates of GLP-1RAs compared to individuals identifying as White.[83, 84] Additionally, individuals enrolled in Medicaid, Medicare, or lacking insurance are less likely to initiate GLP-1RA therapy relative to those with private insurance coverage. Moreover, even when prescribed, Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black individuals are more likely to report cost-prohibitive access barriers to diabetes medications, increasing risk in these populations for diabetes-related complications and mortality.[85] As future research aims to comprehensively assess the full scope of GLP-1RA’s benefits and risks, it is imperative that such studies include the populations with the greatest potential for benefit and explore strategies to mitigate disparities in post-marketing access to these therapies.[86]

CONCLUSIONS

Since their introduction two decades ago, GLP-1RAs have expanded from glycemic control to treat a variety of conditions in individuals without diabetes, including weight management, cardiovascular risk reduction, and obstructive sleep apnea. They are also being explored for off-label uses such as CKD, MASLD, substance use disorders, chronic pain, neurodegenerative disorders, and PCOS. Moreover, given the high cost of these medications and the limited access for uninsured, underinsured, or low-income individuals—who may stand to benefit the most—there is a critical need for policies that enhance access to these therapies to mitigate potential health disparities.

Figure.

Non-diabetes indications for GLP11-Ras

Created in BioRender. Porterfield, L. (2025) https://BioRender.com/sivydgd

* Tirzepatide is approved for treatment of moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea.[22]

† Liraglutide, semaglutide, and tirzepatide are approved for weight loss in individuals with obesity and with overweight and at least one weight-related comorbidity (e.g., hypertension, dyslipidemia).[22]

‡ Semaglutide is approved for reducing risk of major adverse cardiovascular events in individuals with established cardiovascular disease and obesity or overweight.[22]

GLP1-RAs – glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists

MACE – major adverse cardiovascular events (nonfatal stroke, myocardial infarction, and cardiovascular deaths)

CV – cardiovascular

MASLD – metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease

FDA – United States Food and Drug Administration