Table 5.

Benefits and drawbacks of stem cells, chondrocytes, and fibroblasts in CS-based hydrogels for TE applications.

Cell type	Benefits	Drawbacks
Stem cells	▪Creating a biomimetic environment resembling ECM, enhancing cell adhesion and differentiation. ▪Mechanical properties can be tailored to suit the target tissue type. ▪Biocompatibility and support for stem cell survival and proliferation.	▪CS's biodegradability rate may not align perfectly with stem cell differentiation timelines. ▪Risk of immune response or improper integration due to variability in CS's sources and properties. ▪Need for controlled delivery of growth factors or biochemical cues to direct differentiation.
Chondrocytes	▪Supportive matrix for chondrocyte growth and ECM production (e.g., GAGs, collagen type II). ▪Tunable stiffness to simulate native cartilage, aiding repair. ▪Biodegradable and biocompatible, support long-term cartilage development.	▪Limited in vitro expansion; often requires supplementary bioactive cues. ▪Difficulty in maintaining phenotype without biomechanical/biochemical stimuli. ▪Long-term stability of mechanical properties may decline.
Fibroblasts	▪Enhances fibroblast adhesion, migration, and collagen production, crucial for wound healing. ▪Porosity facilitates efficient nutrient exchange and waste removal. ▪Surface modification can further enhance fibroblast adhesion.	▪Risk of fibrosis or scar tissue formation due to excessive collagen synthesis. ▪Mechanical tuning is often required for optimal tissue integration. ▪Limited to specific tissue types and ECM components production.