Table 2.

List of candidate serum protein biomarkers for DMD and their corresponding mRNA expression levels* in DMD muscle tissue compared to controls.

	Target	Protein fold-change in serum (DMD/Cnt)		mRNA fold-change in muscle (DMD/Cnt)		snRNAseq muscle tissue
		VBP15	FORDMD	Bakay et al., 2006	Pescatori et al., 2007	Suárez-Calvet et al., 2023
Muscle specific biomarkers	MYBPH	13.1	22.6	8.0	4.1	5.02 (regenerative fiber)
	TNNT2	14.6	16.0	2.8	3.0	8.95 (regenerative fiber)
	MYOM2	80.2	70.0	−1.36	−1.36	2.66 (fast and slow fibers)
	ACTN2	151.4	202.6	−1.26	−1.6	1.5 (fast and slow fibers)
	TNNI2	50.54	48	−1.43	−1.25	2.12 (fast fibers)
	CA3	50.88	54.59	1.38	−1.03	2.31 (slow fibers)
	MYL3	44.28	66.09	−1.2	−1.4	−0.91 (slow fibers)
Extracellular matrix remodeling	LUM	1.1	1.2	6.7	4.8	1.25 (FAP cells)
	COL6A3	1.47	1.37	4.5	2.6	3.08 (FAP cells)
	THBS4	1.51	1.46	2.4	2.26	0.81 (FAP and SMC cells)
	ADAM12	1.24	1.21	1.22	1.06	6.85 (FAP cells)
	CCDC80	1.67	1.57	Nd	nd	4.97 (FAP cells)
Growth factors and muscle regeneration factors	SPP1	−1.3	−1.2	15.1	3.5	trace
	IGF1	−1.13	−1.12	3.2	1.67	1.69 (slow fibers and FAP)
	IGF2	−1.64	−1.24	4.6	1.84	8.94 (FAPs cells)
	IGFBP3	−1.41	−1.26	5.6	1.46	3.59 (FAP cells)
	VEGFD	−1.63	−1.38	−1.8	−1.23	−1.79 (fast and slow fibers)
	ANXA1	1.8	1.9	4.4	2.2	1.2 (FAP cells)
Immune modulators	CXCL10	1.52	1.29	1.3	1.20	trace
	CXCL11	1.65	1.7	1.16	1.09	trace
	IL1RN	1.21	1.26	1.22	−1.00	trace
	SERPINB1	1.45	1.45	1.5	1.45	1.1 (Slow and fast fibers)
	C3	−2.7	−1.4	7.5	3.7	14.1 (FAP cells)
Others	ART3	−2.2	−2.5	−4.6	−2.3	−0.9 (Slow and fast fibers)
	GSN	−1.4	−1.3	2.2	1.19	2.4 (FAP and SMC cells)
	NNMT	3.88	6.2	11.8	3.65	−0.5 (Slow fibers)
	PENK	5.81	4.66	3.0	2.7	trace

^* Note that many targets had multiple probes; we focused on the same probes across datasets, prioritizing the “_at” probe.

nd: not determined.