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. 2025 Nov 18;8:679. doi: 10.1038/s41746-025-02057-4

Table 2.

GRADE Summary of Evidence

Outcome Number of studies Study design Risk of bias Inconsistency Indirectness Imprecision Confidence rating
Anxiety Levels 21 Randomised and non-randomised studies graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Taba_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabb_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabc_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabd_HTML.gif Very low
Stress Levels 6 Randomised and non-randomised studies graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabe_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabf_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabg_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabh_HTML.gif Very low
Depression Levels 9 Randomised and non-randomised studies graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabi_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabj_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabk_HTML.gif graphic file with name 41746_2025_2057_Tabl_HTML.gif Very low

Risk of bias: Inline graphic very serious; Inline graphic serious; Inline graphic not serious, study design includes both randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomised studies (NRS). RCTs were initially rated as “high” quality and NRS as “low”, with overall certainty rated based on the body of evidence following GRADE criteria.