Understanding the effects of volunteering on well-being: subjective, psychological, and social well-being, gratitude, and loneliness

Abstract

Background

Volunteering has long been recognized as a meaningful social activity that may contribute to personal and community well-being. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of volunteering on subjective, psychological, and social well-being, along with gratitude and loneliness, through an examination of their interrelationships and key influencing factors.

Method

This cross-sectional study was conducted in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia, incorporating both urban and rural populations. A total of 523 participants aged 18 and older recruited using convent convenience sampling methods from public spaces, healthcare facilities, and community centers. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 22, employing descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and regression analysis to identify predictors of volunteering. A p-value of less than 0.05 was deemed statistically significant.

Results

Volunteering was observed to be more prevalent among older adults, males, retirees, and individuals with lower levels of education. Regression analyses revealed that volunteering significantly predicted psychological well-being (β = 0.176, p < .001, adj. R² = 0.093) and social well-being (β = 0.106, p = .033, adj. R² = 0.050), with a marginal association noted with gratitude (β = 0.085, p = .077, adj. R² = 0.100). Conversely, no significant relationship was found between volunteering and subjective well-being (β = 0.048, p = .337, adj. R² = 0.042) or loneliness (β = 0.023, p = .635, adj. R² = 0.050). Furthermore, demographic predictors, including age, gender, marital status, education, employment status, and smoking habits, were identified as influencing these outcomes.

Conclusion

Volunteering has been associated with enhanced psychological and social well-being, exhibiting a marginal effect on gratitude; however, it demonstrated no significant impact on subjective well-being or loneliness. Additionally, demographic factors played a role in influencing well-being, underscoring the potential of volunteering as a viable strategy for promoting mental and social health.

Introduction

Volunteering significantly enhances holistic well-being by improving mental health, fostering social connections, and enriching overall life satisfaction (Nichol et al., 2024). Empirical studies indicate its efficacy in reducing symptoms of depression and loneliness, particularly among older adults [1], while also mitigating the risks associated with cognitive decline [2]. Furthermore, volunteering strengthens social integration through increased community engagement and emotional support [3], fostering a sense of belonging and purpose that is associated with elevated life satisfaction [4, 5].

Psychological research has demonstrated that volunteering can alleviate symptoms of depression and loneliness, thereby contributing to an enhanced quality of life [6]. Additionally, it is associated with improved emotional well-being and may mitigate the risk of cognitive decline, including the onset of Alzheimer’s disease, over time [2]. Participation in volunteer activities is further correlated with a reduction in depressive symptoms and improved psychosocial outcomes in adulthood [7].

Socially, volunteering promotes participation and social connectedness, which are essential for the well-being of middle-aged and older adults. It enables individuals to feel valued and indispensable within their communities. Furthermore, it constitutes a significant post-retirement activity, mitigating feelings of loneliness and enhancing social well-being [8]. Additionally, volunteers are inclined to develop stronger social skills and a more profound sense of community involvement [3].

Regular volunteering is associated with healthier behaviors and enhanced long-term health outcomes. Research indicates that volunteering correlates with a reduced risk of binge drinking [7]. Additionally, individuals who engage in volunteer activities tend to experience improved physical health and fewer limitations in daily activities over time [2].

Despite these numerous benefits, certain forms of volunteering may present potential risks. For instance, engagement in political activism can heighten anxiety, whereas healthcare-related volunteering has been associated with elevated cholesterol levels [7]. Recognizing these nuances can facilitate the design of volunteering opportunities that maximize benefits while minimizing potential drawbacks.

Volunteering in Saudi Arabia has been demonstrated to exert a favorable influence on both individual development and societal advancement [9]. It enhances social relationships, cultivates human capacities, and augments life satisfaction, thereby contributing to an improved quality of social life [10]. Research focusing on Saudi students has established a correlation between gratitude, life satisfaction, and stress, indicating that gratitude serves as a positive predictor of life satisfaction by mitigating stress levels [11]. Furthermore, studies have identified a negative correlation between gratitude and loneliness, suggesting that gratitude may play a role in alleviating loneliness and strengthening social bonds [12]. These findings highlight the psychological benefits of both volunteering and gratitude in promoting well-being and enhancing social connections. Nevertheless, further research is warranted to comprehensively explore the impact of volunteerism on psychological factors such as gratitude and loneliness within the context of Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia has increasingly acknowledged the significance of volunteerism in facilitating sustainable development, in alignment with the Vision 2030 agenda, which underscores the importance of social well-being and community engagement. Volunteerism plays a crucial role in the development of human capital and the promotion of societal prosperity, thereby reinforcing the Kingdom’s commitment to achieving a harmonious balance between economic growth, social progress, and environmental sustainability (National Volunteer Portal, 2024). Alshammari et al., (2023) highlight the significant advancements made by Saudi Arabia in this domain, demonstrating a strategic emphasis on enhancing resilience and improving overall quality of life [13]. Given the potential of volunteerism to augment subjective, psychological, and social well-being while mitigating feelings of loneliness and fostering gratitude, the objective of this study is to investigate the effects of volunteering on these dimensions of well-being. This investigation was explore the interrelationships and key factors that influence these outcomes, aiming to maximize the impact of volunteerism on both individual and societal well-being.

Methods

Site and setting

This cross-sectional study was be conducted in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia, encompassing both urban and rural areas. Data was collected from public spaces, healthcare facilities, and community centers to ensure a diverse representation of the general population aged 18 years and older.

Recruitment procedure

A convenience sampling method was utilized for participant recruitment. Members of the research team approached potential participants in person at designated locations. The researcher provided a concise explanation of the study’s objectives and assessed eligibility criteria. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) participants must be 18 years of age or older, and (2) participants must have access to a smartphone or be willing to utilize a tablet provided by the researcher.

Eligible individuals who consented to participate were given a quick-response (QR) code that directed them to the study information and questionnaire hosted on the QuestionPro platform. Alternatively, the researcher had the option to input the survey link directly into the participant’s device. The initial page of the online survey included a comprehensive participant information sheet and an electronic consent form, which participants were required to accept prior to advancing. The self-administered questionnaire was estimated to take approximately 10–15 min to complete.

Sampling size and technique

The sample size was determined using the standard formula for an unknown population:

where n represents the required sample size, Z is the Z-score corresponding to the desired confidence level (1.96 for 95% confidence), p is the estimated population proportion (set at 0.5 for maximum variability), and E is the margin of error (0.05). Substituting these values, the calculated sample size was 385 participants. Since the total population size was not known, no finite population correction was applied. This approach ensures a representative sample with sufficient statistical power for analysis.

Measures

The questionnaire utilized in this study was compiled from established, previously validated scales rather than being specifically developed for this research. Each construct was assessed using instruments that have been extensively published and validated in prior studies, as detailed below.

1. Voluntary participation. Frequency of volunteering was assessed with one item (“In the past 12 months, how often did you get involved in work for voluntary or charitable organisations?”; 1 = never; 6 = at least once a week) [14, 15].

2. Subjective wellbeing: The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), developed by Diener et al. (1985), serves as a widely utilized and rigorously validated instrument for the assessment of life satisfaction, encapsulating the cognitive dimension of subjective well-being. Participants engage with five items utilizing a 7-point Likert scale, which ranges from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The SWLS exhibited high internal consistency in the original validation study (α = 0.87; Diener et al., 1985) and has demonstrated established convergent and discriminant validity [16]. For the current investigation, the SWLS was translated into Arabic by an expert proficient in both English and Arabic, followed by a review of the translation by three bilingual Ph.D. holders in psychology, who concurred on the final wording. Authorization to utilize the SWLS for educational purposes was secured from the original authors, and the scale was adjudged appropriate for the Saudi cultural context [17]. In the current study, the SWLS demonstrated satisfactory reliability, evidenced by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.809.

3. Psychological wellbeing: In 2009, Stewart-Brown et al. developed a shortened version of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS) [18]. This version consists of seven items of the original WEMWBS’s 14 items, namely, items 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, and 11. The total score of the SWEMWBS scale ranges from 7 to 35. The internal consistency of the SWEMWBS was high (Cronbach’s α ˃ 0.89) [19]. The total score of the SWEMWBS scale ranges from 7 to 35. In the present study, the Psychological Well-Being Scale demonstrated the highest reliability, as indicated by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.829.

4. Social Wellbeing: (4) Social Well-Being: The Social Well-Being Scale (SWBS), developed by Corey Keyes in 1998, comprises five dimensions: social integration, contribution, coherence, actualization, and acceptance, with one item representing each dimension. The original scale demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.87; Keyes, 1998). In the present study, the SWBS exhibited adequate reliability, evidenced by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.734. This scale has been validated through confirmatory factor analyses in multiple studies [20, 21]. In the present study, the Social Well-Being Scale exhibited adequate reliability, evidenced by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.734.

5. Gratitude: The construct of gratitude was evaluated utilizing the six-item Gratitude Questionnaire-Six Item Form (GQ-6), as developed by McCullough et al. (2002). This instrument is designed to assess individual differences in the propensity to experience gratitude in everyday contexts, with responses measured on a seven-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The GQ-6 exhibited a high level of internal consistency in the original validation study (α = 0.87) [22, 23]. In the current study, the Gratitude Scale exhibited satisfactory reliability, as evidenced by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.742. Although one item presented a marginally lower item-total correlation (r =.30), it was retained in the analysis due to its established content validity.

6. The Three-Item Loneliness Scale (UCLA-3), developed by researchers at Duke University and the University of Chicago, comprises three items: “I feel left out,” “I feel isolated,” and “I lack companionship.” Responses are assessed on a three-point Likert scale (hardly ever, some of the time, often). The scale has demonstrated satisfactory reliability, evidenced by cronbach’s alpha of 0.72, and exhibits significant correlations with other indices of emotional well-being, including depressive symptoms and perceived stress [24]. In the context of Saudi Arabia, the reliability of the UCLA-3 has been reported as excellent (α = 0.87) [25]. In the present study, the scale demonstrated strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.789.

The demographic variables incorporated in the study included age, gender, educational attainment, marital status, employment status (classified as employed, unemployed, retired, homemaker, or student), and the presence of chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes mellitus, IHD).

The content validity of the questionnaire was assessed by a panel of experts, including three assistant professors with doctoral degrees in nursing, one assistant professor in psychological counseling, and a lecturer in the Arabic language, to ensure clarity, relevance, and cultural appropriateness.

Ethical consideration

This study adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IRB-2025-04−0174). Prior to participation, all nurses were receiving a comprehensive explanation of the study’s objectives, methodologies, and their rights as participants. Informed consent was acquired from all individuals, emphasizing that participation is voluntary and that they may withdraw at any time without repercussions. Participants were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses, as no personally identifiable information was collected. All data was securely stored and was only accessible to the research team. The study was upholding ethical principles of respect, fairness, and the safeguarding of participants’ safety and well-being. Ethical approval was secured from the relevant committee prior to the commencement of data collection. The sample was representative of the general population. No incentives were offered to participants; their involvement was completely voluntary.

Data analysis

The data were analyzed utilizing SPSS version 22. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations, were employed to summarize demographic characteristics and the distribution of scales. The internal consistency of the measures was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Percentile-based cutoffs, specifically the 33rd and 66th percentiles, were employed to classify participants into low, moderate, and high levels across the well-being and volunteering scales. This categorization method enhances the interpretability of the results, facilitates group comparisons, and aids in the identification of individuals exhibiting varying levels of loneliness, gratitude, and overall well-being.

Differences in volunteering frequency across demographic variables were examined using independent t-tests and one-way ANOVA, supplemented by post hoc comparisons. Bivariate relationships among volunteering, well-being domains, gratitude, and loneliness were assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients. Multivariate outliers were identified through Mahalanobis distance, leading to the exclusion of two cases that exceeded the critical value. Hierarchical regression analyses were performed to evaluate the predictive role of volunteering and sociodemographic variables on gratitude, loneliness, and well-being outcomes. Statistical significance was established at p <.05.

Results

The study encompassed a total of 523 participants, exhibiting a balanced gender distribution with 51.8% identifying as female and 48.2% as male. The sample was predominantly composed of younger adults, with 44.2% of participants aged under 40 years, and a significant proportion of highly educated individuals, as 52.0% possessed Bachelor’s degrees. Employment status among participants varied, with 36.1% currently engaged in the workforce, 24.3% identified as students, and 24.7% classified as retired. The majority of participants were non-smokers, accounting for 83.2%, and a substantial 74.6% reported the absence of chronic diseases. Regarding marital status, the distribution revealed that 56.6% were married, 35.8% were single, and 7.6% were divorced or widowed (Table 1).

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of study participants (N = 523)

Variable	Category	Frequency	Percent
Age (Year)	< 40	231	44.2
	40–60	176	33.7
	> 60	116	22.2
Gender	Male	252	48.2
	Female	271	51.8
Marital status	Single	187	35.8
	Married	296	56.6
	D/W	40	7.6
Education Level	< Secondary	25	4.8
	Secondary	95	18.2
	Diploma	55	10.5
	BSc	272	52.0
	MSN/PhD	76	14.5
Smoking	No	435	83.2
	Yes	88	16.8
Employment status	Working	189	36.1
	Not Working	44	8.4
	Retired	129	24.7
	Student	127	24.3
	Housewife	34	6.5
Chronic Disease	No	390	74.6
	Yes	133	25.4

The participants exhibited notable patterns across the various measures. Approximately 48.4% of respondents reported low levels of loneliness (≤ 4.0), while 14.3% indicated high scores (≥ 7.0). Well-being measures were consistently distributed across tertiles, with each category representing 33–36% of the sample. The frequency of volunteering demonstrated a right-skewed distribution: 36.5% of participants reported never volunteering, 22.4% engaged in volunteer activities several times a year, and only 7.3% volunteered on a weekly basis (Table 2). In addition to the categorical presentation, continuous scores for all variables were analyzed. The participants’ scores, expressed as means and standard deviations, were as follows: loneliness 4.78 (SD = 1.64), gratitude 33.55 (SD = 5.46), social well-being 24.27 (SD = 4.79), subjective well-being 23.96 (SD = 5.38), psychological well-being 25.42 (SD = 4.29), and volunteering frequency 2.51 (SD = 1.55).

Table 2.

Participant distribution across Well-being and volunteering categories

Variable, Mean (SD)	Level	Classification	Frequency	Percent
Loneliness 4.78 (1.64)	Low	≤ 4.0	253	48.4
	Moderate	5.0–6.0	195	37.3
	High	≥ 7.0	75	14.3
Gratitude 33.55 (5.46)	Low	≤ 31.0	177	33.8
	Moderate	32.0–36.0	173	33.1
	High	≥ 37.0	173	33.1
Social Wellbeing 24.27 (4.79)	Low	≤ 22.0	179	34.2
	Moderate	23.0–26.0	178	34.0
	High	≥ 27.0	166	31.7
Subjective Wellbeing 23.96 (5.38)	Low	≤ 22.0	191	36.5
	Moderate	23.0–26.0	161	30.8
	High	≥ 27.0	171	32.7
Psychological Wellbeing 25.42 (4.29)	Low	≤ 24.0	188	35.9
	Moderate	25.0–27.0	165	31.5
	High	≥ 28.0	170	32.5
Volunteering 2.51 (1.55)
	1 - Never		191	36.5
	2 - Once a year		97	18.5
	3 - Several times a year		117	22.4
	4 - Monthly		49	9.4
	5 - Several times a month		31	5.9
	6 - At least once a week		38	7.3

Analysis of demographic differences revealed significant variations in volunteering frequency, measured on a scale from 1 (Never) to 6 (Weekly). Older adults (aged over 60 years) reported substantially higher levels of volunteering (M = 3.75, SD = 1.90) compared to younger age groups, specifically those under 40 years (M = 2.17) and those aged 40 to 60 years (M = 2.15), F(2, 482) = 57.46, p <.001. Additionally, males (M = 2.85, SD = 1.70) volunteered more frequently than females (M = 2.19, SD = 1.32), t(482) = 4.94, p <.001. Differences based on marital status were also significant (F(2, 482) = 7.47, p =.001), with divorced or widowed individuals exhibiting the highest engagement (M = 3.28, SD = 1.85), followed by married participants (M = 2.56, SD = 1.64) and single individuals (M = 2.27, SD = 1.25). Among different employment categories, retirees demonstrated the highest frequency of volunteering (M = 3.13, SD = 1.97), while non-working individuals reported the lowest levels of engagement (M = 2.02, SD = 1.17), F(3, 482) = 7.65, p <.001. No significant differences were observed based on smoking status (p =.157) or chronic disease status (p =.054). Education level exhibited marginal effects (F(2, 482) = 2.51, p =.041), with participants who had less than secondary education volunteering more (M = 3.00, SD = 1.76) than those with secondary education (M = 2.20, SD = 1.25) (Table 3).

Table 3.

Group differences in volunteering frequency by demographic characteristics

Variable	Group	Mean (SD)	t/F	P
Gender	Male	2.85 (1.70)	4.94	< 0.001
	Female	2.19 (1.32)
Smoking	No	2.55 (1.57)	1.42	0.157
	Yes	2.30 (1.41)
Chronic Disease	No	2.59 (1.56)	1.93	0.054
	Yes	2.29 (1.51)
Age Group (Year)	< 40	2.17 (1.19)	57.46¹	< 0.001
	40–60	2.15 (1.28)
	> 60	3.75 (1.90)
Marital Status	Single	2.27 (1.25)	7.47²	0.001
	Married	2.56 (1.64)
	Divorced/Widowed	3.28 (1.85)
Education Level	< Secondary	3.00 (1.76)	2.51³	0.041
	Secondary	2.20 (1.25)
	Diploma	2.72 (1.50)
	BSc	2.45 (1.59)
	MSN/PhD	2.78 (1.65)
Employment Status	Working	2.39 (1.37)	7.65⁴	< 0.001
	Not Working	2.02 (1.17)
	Retired	3.13 (1.97)
	Student	2.33 (1.19)
	Housewife	2.15 (1.76)

¹ Post hoc: >60 vs. < 40 and 40–60 (p <.001)

² Post hoc: D/W vs. Married vs. Single (all p <.05)

³ Post hoc: Secondary vs. < Secondary, Diploma, MSN/PhD (p <.05)

⁴ Post hoc: Retired vs. all others (p <.001)

The bivariate correlation analysis identified several significant relationships among the study variables. The frequency of volunteering exhibited small yet statistically significant positive correlations with gratitude (r =.136, p =.002), social well-being (r =.148, p =.001), subjective well-being (r =.087, p =.048), and psychological well-being (r =.216, p <.001). However, no significant association was observed with loneliness (r =.005, p =.904). Importantly, psychological well-being illustrated the strongest positive correlation with social well-being (r =.604, p <.001), followed by a substantial association with subjective well-being (r =.572, p <.001). Furthermore, all measures of well-being exhibited negative correlations with loneliness, with the most pronounced inverse relationship occurring between loneliness and social well-being (r = −.349, p <.001). Gratitude displayed moderate positive correlations with other indicators of well-being, with correlation coefficients ranging from r =.296 to r =.345 (all p <.001). These patterns indicate that while volunteering is associated with various dimensions of well-being, the interrelationships among the dimensions of well-being themselves are particularly pronounced, with social and psychological well-being demonstrating the most substantial connections (Table 4).

Table 4.

Bivariate correlations between volunteering and Well-being measures

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Volunteering	1
2. Loneliness	0.005	1
3. Gratitude	0.136**	− 0.229**	1
4. Social Well-being	0.148**	− 0.349**	0.296**	1
5. Subjective Well-being	0.087*	− 0.296**	0.303**	0.528**	1
6. Psychological Well-being	0.216**	− 0.339**	0.345**	0.604**	0.572**	1

* Significant < 0.05

** Significant < 0.01

The hierarchical regression analyses indicated significant positive associations between the frequency of volunteering and both psychological well-being (β = 0.176, p <.001) and social well-being (β = 0.106, p =.033), while revealing a marginal association with gratitude (β = 0.085, p =.077). No significant relationships were observed with loneliness (β = 0.023, p =.635) or subjective well-being (β = 0.048, p =.337). Among the covariates, unemployment, in comparison to employment, predicted poorer outcomes across various domains: increased loneliness (β = 0.162, p =.001), diminished social well-being (β = − 0.151, p =.002), lower subjective well-being (β = − 0.218, p <.001), and reduced psychological well-being (β = − 0.208, p <.001). In relation to individuals with primary education, those holding graduate degrees reported significantly higher levels of gratitude (β = 0.329, p <.001). Furthermore, older adults (aged over 60) demonstrated greater gratitude compared to younger adults (under 40) (β = 0.212, p =.013). Females exhibited higher gratitude scores than males (β = 0.153, p =.002), while divorced or widowed participants reported increased loneliness compared to their single counterparts (β = 0.179, p =.002). Non-smokers displayed superior psychological well-being in comparison to smokers (β = − 0.108, p =.016). The status of chronic disease did not yield any significant effects. All models achieved statistical significance (p <.01) with modest explanatory power (adjusted R² = 0.042–0.100.042.100) (Table 5). To clarity, Table 5 presents only the significant predictors for each model. All other predictors were incorporated into the analyses but are not displayed herein to maintain a focus on the primary results.

Table 5.

Hierarchical regression analysis of volunteering frequency on Well-being outcomes

Model	Adj. R²	Volunteering β (p)	Significant Predictors	Reference Category
Loneliness	0.050	0.023 (0.635)	• Divorced/Widowed: 0.179 (0.002)	[Ref: Single]
			• Secondary Education: 0.220 (0.012)*	[Ref: < Secondary]
			• Unemployed: 0.162 (0.001)	[Ref: Working]
Gratitude	0.100	0.085 (0.077)	• Age > 60: 0.212 (0.013)	[Ref: < 40 Years]
			• Female: 0.153 (0.002)	[Ref: Male]
			• Graduate Degree: 0.329 (< 0.001)	[Ref: < Secondary]
Social Well-being	0.050	0.106 (0.033)*	• Unemployed: − 0.151 (0.002)**	[Ref: Working]
Subjective Well-being	0.042	0.048 (0.337)	• Unemployed: − 0.218 (< 0.001)***	[Ref: Working]
Psychological Well-being	0.093	0.176 (< 0.001)***	• Smoker: − 0.108 (0.016)*	[Ref: Non-Smoker]
			• Unemployed: − 0.208 (< 0.001)***	[Ref: Working]

β =Standardized coefficient, Significance: ***p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05

Discussion

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of volunteering on subjective, psychological, and social well-being, as well as gratitude and loneliness, while exploring their interrelationships and key influencing factors. The findings revealed that volunteering was more prevalent among older adults, males, retirees, and individuals with lower educational attainment. Volunteering showed positive correlations with gratitude and all well-being domains, except loneliness. Regression analyses indicated that volunteering significantly predicted psychological and social well-being, showed a marginal association with gratitude, and had no significant effect on subjective well-being or loneliness. Additionally, demographic factors such as age, employment status, gender, and education level influenced well-being outcomes.

Volunteering is associated with numerous positive physical and psychological health outcomes for individuals. Many participants who volunteer report heightened feelings of gratitude and improved overall well-being across various aspects of life, although it does not significantly reduce feelings of loneliness. This finding aligns with the research conducted by Creaven et al. (2018), which shows that the psychological health outcomes and overall well-being of volunteers improve due to the social connections and support they experience while volunteering [26]. Similarly, Kleiner et al. (2022) demonstrated that volunteering positively impacts self-esteem and independence among participants [27]. This suggests that volunteers should be encouraged to continue their activities to enhance their overall quality of life. Furthermore, a study by Shiraki and Igarashi (2018) indicates a strong link between gratitude and prosocial behaviors, such as making charitable donations and adopting a “pay it forward” mentality [28]. Yang et al. (2023) revealed that gratitude promotes prosocial motivation, volunteer engagement, and volunteer retention [29]. Additionally, volunteering has a beneficial effect on mental health by reducing stress and anxiety [3].

Conversely, Mayers et al. (2024) suggest that volunteering may significantly reduce feelings of loneliness [1]. In fact, Akhter-Khan et al. (2023) found that there is a negative association between loneliness and volunteering [30]. Additionally, Carr et al. (2018) highlighted that volunteering is linked to lower levels of loneliness [31]. A study conducted in Australia, which involved 160 individuals, also explored the relationship between loneliness and volunteering, revealing that participants reported low to moderate levels of loneliness [32].

Volunteering has been shown to significantly predict psychological and social well-being. It displays a marginal association with gratitude but has no significant impact on subjective well-being or feelings of loneliness. These findings are consistent with research conducted by Nichol et al. (2024), which reviewed the benefits of volunteering, especially among older adults in the USA [5]. Their study provided consistent evidence demonstrating the positive effects of volunteering on various aspects of health and well-being. These benefits include improvements in overall health, psychological well-being, feelings of pride, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, positive mood, and a reduction in feelings of depression. In contrast, Jiang et al. (2021) found no significant effects of volunteering on psychological well-being, including aspects such as meaning in life, general self-efficacy, or perceived autonomy among adults [33]. Additionally, Williams et al. (2024) affirm that older individuals who engage in volunteering tend to experience lower levels of loneliness compared to non-volunteers [32].

The present study examined various demographic factors related to volunteering. It found that volunteering was more common among older adults, males, retirees, and individuals with lower educational levels. These results align with the research conducted by Hämäläinen et al. (2024), which indicates that retired older adults are more likely to volunteer compared to those still in the workforce [34]. This suggests that volunteering after retirement can have a positive impact on well-being. Similarly, McNicol (2023) found that retirement is positively associated with volunteering, with males participating more frequently than females [35]. In contrast, Jongenelis et al. (2020) discovered that individuals with higher education levels were more likely to volunteer than those with lower educational attainment [36]. They also noted that females are more likely to volunteer compared to males. Overall, older seniors demonstrated a greater propensity to volunteer than their younger male and female counterparts. Additionally, Yeung et al. (2018) found that older participants with less education were less likely to volunteer, as observed in both other-oriented and self-oriented volunteering regression models [4]. Individuals with these background characteristics tended to volunteer less frequently.

This study highlights the significance of volunteering in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The findings encourage civil society organizations (CSOs) in the country to establish volunteer programs that enhance the quality of life for Saudi citizens. It is essential to raise awareness among policymakers to support the development of these volunteer initiatives. Furthermore, there is a need to promote various initiatives that underscore the importance of volunteer work.

This study presents several limitations. Its cross-sectional design precludes the establishment of causal relationships. The use of convenience sampling may restrict the generalizability of the findings, as the sample may not adequately represent the broader population. Furthermore, the reliance on self-reported questionnaires introduces potential biases, including recall bias and social desirability bias. Additionally, although the research was conducted in the Eastern region of Saudi Arabia, the applicability of the findings to other regions or cultural contexts remains uncertain. Unmeasured confounding variables may have influenced the results, regardless of the regression analyses employed. Lastly, the study did not differentiate among various types of volunteer work, which could potentially impact well-being outcomes. Future research should investigate how different forms of volunteering, such as community service, healthcare volunteering, or educational support, may affect psychological, social, and subjective well-being.

Conclusion

This study investigated the influence of volunteering on psychological, social, and subjective well-being, as well as its associations with gratitude and loneliness. The results indicated a positive correlation between volunteering and both psychological and social well-being, with a moderate association observed concerning gratitude. Conversely, no significant relationship was identified between volunteering and subjective well-being or loneliness. Notably, the prevalence of volunteering was higher among males, individuals aged over 60, those who are divorced or widowed, individuals with less than secondary education, and retirees. Additionally, demographic factors such as gender, employment status, age, and educational attainment were found to impact well-being. These findings suggest that volunteering may serve as a beneficial pathway for enhancing mental and social health, particularly for certain demographic groups.

Authors’ contributions

Conceptualization, E.S; Methodology, E.S., A.A.; Software, E.S.; Formal analysis, E.S.; Writing—all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data availability

The study’s data are available from the principal author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

(a) Ethical consideration: This study adhered to ethical guidelines as approved by the Institutional Review Board at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IRB-2025-04-0174).

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.