The Transition to Kindergarten for Children on the Autism Spectrum: A Qualitative Study Examining the Perspectives of Caregivers and Teachers on Home-School Collaboration

Abstract

The transition to kindergarten can impact children’s academic, social-emotional, and behavioral well-being. Caregivers and teachers play a critical role during the kindergarten transition, especially for children with developmental disabilities, such as those on the autism spectrum (AS). In this study, we used qualitative data from focus groups (N = 7) with 11 diverse caregivers and 14 special education teachers from public schools to understand the transition to kindergarten for children on the AS in the northeast of the United States. The 11 themes that emerged from our data indicated that caregivers and teachers had concerns about children (e.g., daily living skills) and the school (e.g., support staff). Early, frequent, and personalized communication between caregivers and teachers that was bi-directional and action-oriented were reported as facilitators. Limited, non-existent, or negative communication between caregivers and teachers, as well as external circumstances (e.g., access to WiFi, busing), were highlighted as barriers. During the transition to kindergarten, effective caregiver-teacher meetings warranted clear expectations, a team-based approach, and data to promote home-school alignment. These findings suggest that trainings during professional development should encourage teachers to take a tailored approach in working with families to ensure a smooth kindergarten transition for children on the AS.

The transition to kindergarten is a milestone event in children’s academic journey. A successful kindergarten transition sets the stage for formal schooling, and as such, can impact children’s academic, social-emotional, and behavioral development and well-being (Hoffman et al., 2020; Nelson & Smith, 2004; Puccioni et al., 2019; Sands & Meadan, 2023; Starr et al., 2016). Kindergarten transitions may be even more critical for children with developmental disabilities, such as those on the autism spectrum (AS; Fontil et al., 2020; Marsh et al., 2017). According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)’s active surveillance program, AS prevalence among 8-year-old children rose from an estimated one in 44 (2.3%) in 2018 to one in 36 (2.8%) (Maenner et al., 2023). The purpose of this qualitative study is to understand the transition to kindergarten for children on the AS from the perspective of both caregivers and special education teachers from public schools in the northeast of the United States. Our study addresses an important area of inquiry by potentially improving transition support services for the growing number of children identified on the AS.

The transition to kindergarten

The transition to kindergarten is a crucial developmental step for both children and their families, marking a significant shift in the learning and developmental environment (McIntyre et al., 2007; Viskovic & Višnjić-Jevtić, 2020; Wildenger & McIntyre, 2011). For many children, this transition means a change in educational settings, while for others, it may be their first encounter with formal schooling (Jiang et al., 2021; Sands & Meadan, 2023). Despite variations influenced by sociodemographic and geographic factors, preschool and kindergarten remain the predominant forms of early childhood education in the United States (Tang et al., 2023). In a recent study conducted in the United States, educators identified significant differences between early childhood and kindergarten settings, describing the former as more family focused and the latter as more academically focused (Yamauchi & Chapman de Sousa, 2020). A review by Bassok (2016) of recent systematic changes in the kindergarten experience indicated a noticeable shift toward an increased emphasis on academic instruction, particularly in literacy and math. Notably, teachers were more inclined to believe that academic instruction should begin before kindergarten entry (Bassok et al., 2016), adding further pressure to the transition from preschool to kindergarten. Brown (2021) attributed this shift to an economic-based model of learning and suggested that reframing expectations among education stakeholders was essential to promote a more holistic approach that would align caregiver and educator practices.

Indeed, the confluence of changes across pedagogical approaches and learning practices between early childhood and kindergarten classrooms can be a difficult adjustment for many children (Vitiello et al., 2022). Teacher reports on general education transition difficulty from a sample of 688 kindergartners across 45 classrooms indicated a high prevalence of challenges related to making friends, following schedules, meeting academic demands, working within groups, and being organized (Jiang et al., 2021). More specifically, the study found that more than 70% of children experienced difficulties in at least one of these five areas, highlighting the formative nature of the kindergarten transition (Jiang et al., 2021). Further, caregivers noted the emotional impact of these challenges, particularly those related to social interactions and organizational skills. The authors partially attributed this relatively high prevalence to the lack of alignment between learning environments (Jiang et al., 2021), suggesting that misalignment between settings may contribute to the observed challenges. These findings highlight the importance of integrating caregiver and teacher perspectives to fully understand the transition experience and emphasize the need for comprehensive support systems involving both educators and families.

Given the common challenges many children face during the transition to kindergarten, exploring the collaboration between caregivers and teachers is crucial for supporting children through a successful transition. Previous research underscores the importance of home-school collaboration during this period. It highlights how a shift in educational environments can often cause caregivers to feel more restricted and less involved as their children enter kindergarten. Seminal work by La Paro et al. (2003) emphasized that caregiver involvement and communication with educators are crucial for fostering positive outcomes for children.

Furthermore, in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, optimal outcomes for children are contingent upon the independent influence of home and school, as well as the interaction between home and school (Bronfenbrenner, 1988, 1995). Home and school both have a direct impact on the child and serve as the first level, the microsystem, in this theory. The relationships between members of the home and school systems fall under the mesosystem, where collaborative home-school partnerships are critical to children’s developmental outcomes (Azad et al., 2021; Sheridan et al., 2013; Sroufe et al., 1992).

Grounded in this theory, both caregivers and teachers are essential in facilitating a successful kindergarten transition. Early childhood educators are key in preparing students for school, supporting them in establishing routines (e.g., entering the classroom independently, unpacking backpacks, participating in morning activities), engaging in social interactions, and learning early academics (Blewitt et al., 2021). Educators achieve this by providing engaging classroom environments, offering personalized support, and assessing each child’s individual needs (Boyle & Benner, 2020; Sheridan et al., 2020). Simultaneously, caregivers serve as the child’s “first teachers,” reinforcing essential skills at home, promoting social-emotional development, and fostering a positive attitude toward learning (Van Der Wal, 2020). Numerous cross-cultural studies highlight the positive correlation between caregiver involvement and children’s school engagement and adjustment (Cook et al., 2018; Lee & Barger, 2022). For example, a qualitative study in Hong Kong found that mothers’ expectations of caregiver involvement significantly shaped their involvement with their children’s schools, which subsequently impacted children’s engagement and development at school (Tao et al., 2019). Similarly, drawing from comprehensive data that included academic assessments of kindergarten students, caregiver interviews, and teacher surveys (N = 13,999), Puccioni et al. (2019) established a positive link between caregivers’ beliefs about their child’s school readiness and the child’s academic performance and socio-emotional skill development in kindergarten (Puccioni et al., 2019). These findings align with existing literature that consistently identifies caregiver involvement as pivotal in adapting to the many changes involved in the transition to kindergarten (Lau et al., 2011; Lau & Power, 2018).

Indeed, active family engagement in the kindergarten transition has emerged as a significant protective factor for children’s overall development (McIntyre et al., 2007; McWayne et al., 2016; Puccioni et al., 2019). The Kids in Transition to School (KITS) Program, a research-based intervention, aimed to promote family engagement in the transition to kindergarten, recognizing its important role in children’s academic and developmental outcomes (Pears et al., 2018). The program enhanced several aspects of family engagement, such as equipping caregivers with advocacy skills, increasing caregivers’ endorsement of their children’s schools, and providing more support for children’s learning at home compared to the control group (Pears et al., 2018). These improvements marked positive connections between families and schools. By building communication channels between caregivers and teachers, the program enabled more effective collaboration in supporting children’s academic and social development. Findings also indicated that caregivers who felt more connected to their children’s schools were more likely to be actively involved in their children’s education, which may contribute to a smoother transition and better adjustment to the kindergarten environment. Overall, the strengthened home-school partnerships facilitated by the KITS Program likely played a key role in promoting a positive transition experience for children entering kindergarten (Hoffman et al., 2020).

The transition to kindergarten for children on the autism spectrum

Transitioning to kindergarten can be especially challenging for children on the AS, as their unique educational needs and support systems require careful consideration throughout the transition. Since the enactment of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975, caregiver participation in special education programming has been legally mandated, most recently revised to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004 (Lipkin et al., 2015). Although children with special educational needs (SEN) may struggle with the multiple changes (e.g., change in teachers, peers, classrooms) involved in the kindergarten transition, children on the AS are more likely to struggle because of the core deficits associated with this developmental disorder.

AS is characterized by social communication challenges and restricted/repetitive behaviors (RRBs) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). For example, rigidity or an “insistence on sameness” is one manifestation of RRBs; therefore, a major change such as the transition to kindergarten may be particularly difficult for children on the AS. A review of preschool participation for children on the AS highlighted the unique challenges of classroom engagement because of children’s fixation on certain repetitive behaviors, a core symptom of AS. Factors such as children’s familiarity with the learning environment and educator’s competency regarding sensory regulation and behavioral modification are crucial to students’ participation. Unfortunately, the unique factors related to AS are often overlooked during the transition process (Yee et al., 2017). Additionally, children with deficits in social communication may not be able to articulate their needs and/or frustrations (e.g., with new routines), which may result in challenging behaviors (Ghandour et al., 2019; Taheri et al., 2016) and an increased risk of bullying victimization in the classroom (Forrest et al., 2020; Gage et al., 2021). It is important to understand home-school collaborations during the transition to kindergarten for this high-risk group.

The disorder-specific challenges associated with AS are compounded by the variations in kindergarten transition across many states. For example, in New York where this study took place, children with developmental delays are served through publicly funded early intervention programs (birth-3 years), the Committee on Preschool Special Education (3-5 years), and then the Committee on Special Education (past 5 years of age). Therefore, some children may transition from inclusive preschools to inclusive kindergartens, while other children may transition from special education preschools to special education kindergartens. Still others may transition from inclusive preschools to special education kindergartens or vice versa. These transitions also may be between private to public schools.

Kindergarten transitions necessitate heightened support from home and school to allow for smooth progression for children on the AS (Chen et al., 2020; Olsen et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2022). A systematic review of 39 studies focusing on the kindergarten transition for children on the AS highlighted several barriers, such as lack of training among school staff, limited caregiver involvement in education planning, and inadequate supports and resources. Facilitators for a successful kindergarten transitions were also identified, including individualized and structured support, caregiver-teacher communication, school visits, and connecting caregivers with resources (Fontil et al., 2020). Collectively, these findings underscore the importance of collaborative practices between caregivers and teachers in enhancing the success of the kindergarten transition for children on the AS. Interestingly, the barriers associated with kindergarten transitions are similar to the barriers associated with individualized education program (IEP) meetings (Drasgow et al., 2001). Previous research highlights that some caregivers report negative experiences with the IEP process (Cheatham & Ostrosky, 2011; Deardorff & Yeager, 2021; Kurth et al., 2020). These negative experiences often stem from caregivers feeling powerless, lack of active participation, and lack of structure (Mueller & Vick, 2019). Therefore, understanding what constitutes an effective caregiver-teacher meeting during the transition process may have implications for improving IEP meetings.

Communication and collaboration between diverse caregivers and teachers

Caregiver-teacher relationships are defined in the literature as having two critical components — that is, the extent to which caregivers and teachers communicate and collaborate or “join” together (i.e., joining) (Smith et al., 2022; Vickers & Minke, 1995). Family-school partnerships, particularly communication and collaboration between caregivers and teachers, may enhance the implementation of effective practices to support children’s learning and development (Garbacz et al., 2016). They also ensure alignment between home and school, which is particularly important for children on the AS who struggle with rigidity or an insistence on sameness (Azad et al., 2021). As such, active involvement and commitment to the transition process from both caregivers and teachers can significantly impact a child’s experience and set the stage for future academic and social success.

In Sands and Meadan’s (2023) examination of caregivers’ and kindergarten teachers’ perceptions and experiences of the kindergarten transition for children on the AS, the theme of caregiver-teacher communication emerged as a crucial factor in facilitating an effective transition. Specifically, effective communication allowed caregivers to feel involved in their child’s academic setting and engaged teachers in the child’s learning at home, ultimately creating a partnership to make more informed decisions about the child’s services and needs. By contrast, they identified a lack of communication and alignment between preschools and kindergarten as a severe barrier.

Unfortunately, many schools do not provide a comprehensive transition plan that allows caregivers and teachers to exchange important information about the child and school (Nelson & Smith, 2004). Conversely, having a positive relationship with teachers and receiving support at home are often rated as top priorities for caregivers during the transition to kindergarten (Kim, 2023). More specifically, positive co-caring interactions, especially those marked by good communication, are related to effective care coordination between caregivers and teachers (Lang et al., 2016), having a positive impact on children’s outcomes. Starr et al. (2016) conducted a focus group study with caregivers and teachers of children on the AS, reporting that relationship building, communication, knowledge, and support were key themes during the transition to kindergarten. These themes were particularly relevant in ensuring that interventions were culturally sensitive and supportive.

Indeed, the socialization context in the United States contributes to unique challenges for diverse families (Coll et al., 1996). On the microsystem level, biased treatment or unequal opportunities based on factors like race or socio-economic status can undermine the child’s sense of security and belonging, straining the relationship between the family and school (mesosystem), leading to communication barriers and decreased collaboration (Sanders & Molgaard, 2019). Addressing these practices requires consideration of how these factors may influence the dynamics of home-school collaborations.

While there is recognition that home life contributes to a child’s academic transition experience, current research often overlooks the unique experiences of marginalized communities when developing plans for home-school collaboration (Bornfreund & Ewen, 2021). Diverse populations, such as children from racially/ ethnically minoritized communities and English language learners, as well as children with disabilities and those from low-income families, often encounter systemic barriers that exacerbate the difficulties related to a successful kindergarten transition as measured by lower academic achievement (Coba-Rodriguez et al., 2020; Hahn et al., 2014). Heightened risk for challenges in the adjustment to kindergarten may be the result of limited access to resources due to socio-economic factors (Jarrett & Coba-Rodriguez, 2018). Thus, it is important explore how effective caregiver-teacher communication and collaboration can mitigate such adverse effects by identifying strategies that ensure all children receive the necessary support for a successful transition to kindergarten.

The current study aims to deepen our understanding of the empirical and practical facets of home-school collaborations by focusing on how diverse caregivers and teachers can facilitate the transition to kindergarten for children on the AS. We examine the primary concerns of caregivers and teachers, as well as their communication and collaboration (anchored in the definition of caregiver-teacher relationships). We ask three research questions: 1) What are the primary concerns for caregivers and teachers during the kindergarten transition? 2) What are the barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication during the transition to kindergarten? 3) What makes an effective caregiver-teacher meeting during the kindergarten transition? By expanding other qualitative studies (Sands & Meadan, 2023; Starr et al., 2016) and empirical findings related to barriers and facilitators to kindergarten transitions (Fontil et al., 2020), we provide a comprehensive understanding of the unique experiences of diverse families, with the goal of promoting more culturally sensitive and equitable transition strategies.

Method

Participants

School context.

Schooling in the United States consists of 13 years of education, beginning with kindergarten around 5 to 6 years of age. Kindergarten services can be delivered through public, private, or charter schools. Depending on the school’s population, some kindergartens may offer language immersion programs, special education services, and other variations in educational approaches. The adjustment to kindergarten involves a shift toward a more structured classroom environment, larger class sizes, and an overall decrease in child-directed activities (Jiang et al., 2021). While caregiver involvement can vary, many schools provide orientations and maintain active caregiver-teacher associations (PTA) to ease the transition process (Jiang et al., 2021). However, the increasing emphasis on academics in kindergarten presents more challenges for children with developmental delays, who may require additional instruction in school readiness skills (Lee, 2017).

In the present study, we examined the kindergarten transition for children on the AS in self-contained special education classrooms in northeast public schools. There were 10 urban (n = 6) and suburban (n = 4) schools from four districts in New York. The student-teacher ratios in special education classrooms in New York range from 6:1:2 (6 students, 1 teacher, 2 paraprofessionals; more restrictive) to 12:1:1 (12 students, 1 teacher, 1 paraprofessional; less restrictive). In addition to classroom supports, children in these classrooms receive related services (e.g., speech and/or occupational therapy). However, we did not include related service providers or paraprofessionals in the present study.

Participant context.

Participants were 11 caregivers and 14 teachers who participated in focus groups in the spring of the academic year. Caregivers were primarily mothers (83.30%) with an average age of 38.58 (SD = 5.11). The primary language spoken at home was English (83.30%), with 16.70% of families reporting Spanish as their main language. The racial distribution was primarily White (58.30%) or Black (41.70%), with 41.60% of mothers reporting a Hispanic/Latino ethnicity. Two caregivers had children who attended special schools serving public school students with SENs.

Teachers were primarily female (92.90%) and White (92.90%) with an average age of 35.46 (SD = 11.14). Teachers taught pre-kindergarten or kindergarten (both in public settings) special education, with an average of approximately 10.54 (SD = 7.98) students in their classroom. Teachers spent an average of 10.23 (SD = 9.07) years teaching with 8.69 (SD = 9.08) years specifically in special education. One teacher taught in a special school for children with SENs. (See Tables 1 and 2 for demographic characteristics.)

Table 1.

Family demographic characteristics (N = 11).

Variable	% or M (SD)
Primary Caregiver
Mother	83.3%
Father	16.7%
Age	38.58 (5.11)
Ethnicity
Hispanic or Latino	58.3%
Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano	8.3%
Puerto Rican	16.7%
Cuban	8.3%
Other (e.g., Dominican)	8.3%
Race
White	58.3%
Black	41.7%
Family Assistance
Medicaid	25.0%
Food Stamps	9.1%
Supplemental Security Income	8.3%
Number of Children
One	16.6%
Two	41.7%
Three or More	41.7%

Table 2.

Teacher demographic characteristics (N = 14).

Variable	% or M (SD)
Gender
Female	92.9%
Male	7.1%
Ethnicity
Hispanic or Latino	7.1%
Non-Hispanic or Latino	92.9%
Race
White	92.9%
Other	7.1%
Age	35.46 (SD = 11.14)
College Graduate	7.1%
Graduate/Professional Degree	85.7%
Certification, General Education
General Education	71.4%
No General Education	21.4%
Certification, Special Education
Special Education	92.9%
No	7.1%
Certification, Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education	50.0%
No	42.9%
Taught Combined Grades	6.16%
Number of Students	10.54 (7.98)
Years of Teaching Special Education	8.69 (SD = 9.01)

Procedures

The study was conducted with approval from the university’s ethics review committee and participating public school districts. The first author met with school administrators at each district, who helped identify potential schools. The first author then met with the principal at each school. Interested principals gave written approval and connected the first author with potential special education teachers. The first author met with special education teachers to explain the study and answer any questions. Interested teachers were given a consent form to sign (n = 21 consented). Consented teachers sent home recruitment packets to caregivers. Caregivers who were interested completed an interest form. The first author contacted interested caregivers to further explain the study. Caregivers who continued to express interest signed the consent form (n = 12 consented). As part of the eligibility screening, caregivers reported what age their children received an autism diagnosis and by whom (e.g., medical, psychological, or educational provider).

We conducted focus groups (N = 7), ensuring that caregivers and teachers of the same child did not participate in the same focus group. Each participant took part in only one focus group. First, separate caregiver or teacher focus groups were conducted (two caregiver-only focus groups, three teacher-only focus groups), followed by two mixed caregiver and teacher focus groups. Separate focus groups were intended to encourage uninhibited experience sharing, while mixed focus groups permitted more exchange between stakeholders. Potential power differentials between caregivers and teachers in the mixed focus group were addressed by outlining guidelines and norms for the groups. Guidelines included practices to value all perspectives (e.g., active listening), practices to show respect (e.g., referring to everyone by their correct pronouns), and practices to address traditional power dynamics (e.g., using first names only). Focus groups lasted approximately 90 minutes and took place on the HIPAA compliant Webex platform. Focus groups were audio recorded and then transcribed. Field notes from the focus group leader (i.e., first author) were referenced to provide additional context and clarity for the transcripts. The transcripts were de-identified and checked by a research assistant prior to uploading them onto the coding software, MAXQDA.

The focus group guide was developed by the first author. Each focus group began with brief introductions, followed by guidelines for the focus group. The following is a list of some of the caregiver questions (a corresponding set was presented to teachers): 1) What would you consider good communication from teachers during the transition to kindergarten? 2) Can you think of an example of when your communication didn’t go so well with teachers? What could have been done differently? 3) Some caregivers may have concerns when children are transitioning to school. In your experience, did you have concerns about your child during this transition, and if so, what were they? 4) Think about a scenario when you brought up a concern to your child’s teacher during the kindergarten transition, and now you’re about to go into a caregiver-teacher meeting to discuss that concern and strategies to address that concern. What would be the top three things you need help before, during, and after that meeting?

Data analyses

We used the constant comparison method (CCM) inspired by grounded theory (Glaser et al., 1968) and Charmaz and Thornberg’s (2021) clustering approach to analyze the focus group data. This approach uses an iterative process of comparisons to develop common themes in the data by moving between codes and text through multiple cycles (Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021). We generated themes using the four phases advocated by Vaismoradi et al. (2016). The goal of our analyses was to summarize and present the corpus of what caregivers and teachers reported in the focus groups. We chose to analyze caregiver and teacher report together given that our conceptual framework focused on the mesosystem.

Given that transcriptions may not cover all intended meaning, we listened to the audio recordings and read the transcripts to ensure the integrity of our methods. During the initialization phase, coders read the transcripts, highlighted meaningful texts line by line, and wrote reflective notes. During the construction phase, an iterative process of comparisons was used to develop common themes in the data by moving between codes and text through multiple cycles (Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021). Then, codes were organized, interpreted, and compared in terms of similarities and differences to assign a place for each cluster of codes. A label was then given to each cluster of codes to abstract a content-rich theme. During the verification stage, themes were checked and compared, as well as confirmed by relating themes to established knowledge. The verification stage ensured that we were generating meaningful themes from our data (Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021; Vaismoradi et al., 2016). Trustworthiness was established through an audit trail to keep detailed notes about the methods and decisions, multiple readings of the transcripts and listening of the audiotapes, searching for discrepancies, and debriefing with the coding team (Bradley et al., 2007; Morrow, 2005). During the finalization phase of theme development, we described and connected the various theme in order to answer the research question (Vaismoradi et al., 2016).

To further bolster the integrity of our findings, we followed the five steps in CCM reported by Boeije (2002). More specifically, we made: 1) comparisons within each focus group, 2) comparisons of caregivers across the caregiver-only focus groups, 3) comparisons of teachers across the teacher-only focus groups, 4) comparisons of caregivers and teachers across the caregiver-only or teacher-only focus groups, and 5) comparisons between caregivers and teachers in the mixed focus groups. These comparisons were in alignment with our theoretical orientation – ecological systems theory – which delineates the microsystem (i.e., caregivers and teachers separately) and the mesosystem (i.e., the interaction between caregivers and teachers). We did not calculate inter-rater reliability because all three coders coded all seven of the focus groups. Our data analyses approach has been used in the literature to explicate and understand processes (in our case, the process of transitioning to school for children on the AS) (Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021).

Analyses were conducted on MAXQDA by a coding team of three coders who were not involved in study development or leading data collection. In qualitative research, it is important to acknowledge researcher positionality or an individual’s view and the position they take in relation to the research. Some aspects of positionality are fixed, such as gender/race, while other aspects are subjective, such as personal experiences (Manohar et al., 2017). For the present study, the first author and focus group lead was an Asian-American female in her 30s, who identified as a mother of young children (but not a child on the AS) and prior teacher of young children on the AS. The three coders were White (1, MA-level) and Hispanic (2, BA-level) females in their 20s who did not have children or prior teaching experiences. However, all coders had prior experiences in qualitative coding. Therefore, the coders were both insiders and outsiders to the research. It was not necessary to evaluate or ensure consistency across the coders because all three coders coded all seven of the focus group transcripts together (Lu & Hodge, 2019).

Results

The purpose of this study was to examine how caregivers and teachers can facilitate the transition to kindergarten for children on the AS. Below we present the results to our three research questions.

Research question 1: What are the primary concerns of caregivers and teachers during the transition to kindergarten for children on the AS?

Two major themes emerged. The first revolved around concerns about the child’s well-being, encompassing communication/language, daily living skills, and social-emotional-behavioral needs. The second major theme centered around concerns about the school, which included two sub-themes identified by caregivers (e.g., classroom size, teacher expertise) and a third sub-theme (i.e., support staff) endorsed by both caregivers and teachers. (See Table 3.)

Table 3.

Themes and subthemes about the primary concerns during the transition to kindergarten.

Theme	Sub-themes	Illustrative Quote
Concerns about the child	Communication/language	“For me, the first thing that comes to mind for my child because he’s nonverbal is that he might be bullied in school and because he’s not able to tell me… something that’s happening either physically or emotionally either by another child or the staff…so I think that’s a huge worry because as a nonverbal kid he can’t tell me what’s happening and as a parent that’s one of the things I worry about.” [caregiver, 3a]
	Daily life skills	“It’s always a big conversation like who likes to eat what and who doesn’t. Who is safely eating. Because our kids don’t always have good oral motor and it’s important that we know ahead of time and we have a lot of conversations before the first day of school because I need to know how they eat, what do they eat, what don’t they like.” [teacher,3b]
	Social, emotional, & behavioral needs	“Also, my students can be a bit more behavioral, so I’m also concerned with what tactics parents have used at home that is able to calm the child and that really seems to help a bit. Some parents don’t even like to share that information. so it’s important to know how to help calm the child, like do they like squeezes, do they like to be left alone and kind of calm down on their own in a safe space.” [teacher,3c]
Concerns about the school	Classroom size	“I think that when the class is downsized, you see a much bigger difference and a much better improvement because when you have so many kids in a class, the teacher doesn’t have time to focus, you know this person is running around, that person is running around. Your child is like being neglected if I’m being honest.” [caregiver, 3d]
	Teacher expertise	“And the other piece is their expertise, how well do they know how to do this, how invested are the teachers in trying to make it work, instead of just writing off the kid who’s just bouncing off the walls or doesn’t want to engage because it’s so easy to do that. We know that they have a lot of other responsibilities.” [caregiver, 3e]
	Support staff	“Another big thing is trying to get, because I work with a bunch of paras in my room, trying to get everyone on the same page. Even with the therapist, you know, whether it’s taking him to the bathroom or if they’re having a therapy session during snack time… I feel like that can be a struggle sometimes because there are some people that have been teaching for very long time and they have things in their head that they want to do, and they don’t they don’t like change. And somebody like myself who just came to the district 3 years ago, sometimes I have different ideas and people don’t like change.” [teacher,3f]

Theme 1: Concerns about the child.

Communication and language.

The participants expressed significant concern about the children’s ability, or lack thereof, to effectively communicate. Caregivers were concerned about their children being nonverbal as it posed a challenge for them to communicate their needs or express potential issues at school. Caregivers also highlighted that their children’s limited communication skills made them [the children] vulnerable, which in turn, resulted in caregiver anxiety. (See quote 3a in Table 3.) A salient concern for caregivers was their children’s limited communication on the bus. Caregivers were concerned about their children being alone, especially since many children had long bus rides. They discussed the challenge of nonverbal children being unable to ask for help, which led to caregivers feeling uninformed about the events that took place on the ride. Some caregivers mentioned using their child’s iPad to track the location of the bus.

Teachers were concerned about each student having a voice (e.g., through Picture Exchange Communication Systems [PECS], visuals, choice boards, and/or emotions charts) to express their needs. Teachers frequently discussed the practical use of visuals as a common communication tool. They also mentioned the importance of students’ advocating for themselves and relaying that information back to caregivers. Both parties indicated that good rapport between the student and teacher impacted the child’s ability to communicate.

Daily living skills.

The topic of eating emerged as a shared concern between caregivers and teachers. Caregivers stated that going to a new school raised concerns for them about their children’s ability to eat on their own. Many were worried about their children’s lack of independent eating skills, as well as their picky eating habits. Caregivers wanted teachers who were flexible with eating preferences. For instance, allowing children to eat their limited food items and/or allowing food to be heated up. Caregivers were also concerned about whether their children were eating enough.

Many families in our sample faced significant socio-economic challenges. As one participant noted, low-income families and those experiencing housing instability face unique difficulties in engaging in the communication envisioned by teachers. (See quote 4f in Table 4.) Teachers mentioned asking caregivers to write down notes about their children’s eating preferences. They also shared instances of calling caregivers if there were challenges (e.g., student was not eating) to receive advice from them. Teachers discussed having conversations with caregivers before the first day of school to get more information on mealtime behaviors (i.e., allergies, picky eater, lunch from home). (See quote 3b in Table 3.)

Table 4.

Themes and subthemes about the barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication during the transition to kindergarten.

Theme	Sub-themes	Illustrative Quote
Early, frequent, and personalized communication is needed for trust & rapport	Connecting with families before school starts	“Sure, I often feel like to start off communication and on a good note, in the beginning of the year prior to receiving the students I’ll just make introductory phone calls and ask them some questions. Just kind of do like a quick interest inventory over the phone and that seems to kind of like set things off on the right foot in terms of communicating.” [teacher, 4a]
	Understanding the child and their home environment	“I just need to know as a teacher, no matter if they’re special ed or typical, whoever is coming into the classroom, I love to know just a little bit about them, so we always have a parent fill out like this information sheet kind of like what their hobbies are, pets, people at home.” [teacher, 4b]
	Supporting and engaging with caregivers	“I think I just really try to meet the parents where they’re at…but I also like really to want to see if there’s anything specific, they want to discuss. And they usually do have something and it’s often educational like educationally related, but sometimes it’s not and sometimes it’s something personal, that is affecting the child that’s important for us to know. So, I think just like meeting them where they’re at is like huge.” [teacher, 4c]
Communication needs to be bi-directional and action-oriented	Communication is important for buildin rapport and establishing positive caregiver-teacher relationships	“One of my parents, we have a line of communication so each day we go back and forth and if something happens in school, I’ll email her because she wants to stay on the same page as me…so each day I give her a little information about what happened at class, and she’ll tell me how her daughter does at home.” [teacher, 4d]
	Using multiple modalities to exchange information	“Our teacher uses Class Dojo also and it also has a feature where you message each other. You know we’re always in constant communication where we message each other back and forth. If there’s anything I need to know, she’ll message me. It’s like a text message and you get an alert so we’re constantly back and forth through direct message on Class Dojo.” [caregiver, 4e]
Multiple layers of external circumstances can impact caregiver-teacher communication	Contextual factors with caregivers and teachers	“Sometimes parents just can’t, it’s hard, they might not be unmotivated they just can’t. I know at [current school] a lot of our students are low income or in shelters and it’s all that outside impact that they want to do more, but sometimes they can’t.” [teacher, 4f]
		“We didn’t even have that close relationship because they couldn’t get to know me, and I couldn’t get to know them because of the language barrier.” [teacher, 4g]
	Experiences with school/staff	“Just generally I think part of it was the school culture they always acted like kind of privileged to be there.” [caregiver, 4h]
		“The teachers were great and that wasn’t my concern it was just the services he was getting on site. I knew nothing about.” [caregiver, 4i]
	Factors outside of school	“We have great communication with the teacher, but horrible communication with the bus driver’s monitor.” [caregiver, 4j]
		“I had to call the bus company and then the bus company took 15 minutes to actually finally locate them and then the bus company was just like oh well we just have poor communication here, that was their answer.” [caregiver, 4k]
Limited, non-existent, or negative communication is detrimental to caregivers and teachers	Relaying negative information	“I feel mostly when the collaboration doesn’t go well with the parents is when we don’t have the information or the equipment that we need to be able to answer them - if a parent wants to do something for their kid - we really want to help them - but we don’t have access to the information and if we go to administration, we’re told no. That’s where I usually find a lot of the problems with the parents.” [teacher, 4l]
	Limited or non-existent caregiver-teacher communication	“My son is five years old, and I wish when he was 3 years old that I had a teacher like you because during that period I didn’t hear anything on the teacher at all so I had no idea what was happening at school and in hindsight it was something I would have differently.” [caregiver, 4m]

Caregivers and teachers also shared a mutual concern over toileting. Teachers stated that many students were not toilet trained upon entering kindergarten. Teachers asked questions such as, “Do you want to work on toilet training?” to the caregivers. Caregivers mentioned that this was a major source of anxiety for them because it required putting a lot of trust into teachers (e.g., since toileting requires personal hygiene). They also talked about the impact of class size on toileting (i.e., whether teachers could manage accidents in a large class).

Social, emotional, and behavioral needs.

Teachers commented on how important it was to know about their students’ behaviors (e.g., to implement effective strategies), but sometimes caregivers did not like to disclose information about their children’s behaviors (e.g., tantrums, aggressive behaviors). (See quote 3c in Table 3.)

Caregivers also expressed concerns when it came to behavior management. They were worried about children being hyperactive and whether teachers were equipped to manage their activity levels. Caregivers were also concerned over physical safety, specifically about self-injurious behavior and elopement.

Both caregivers and teachers spoke about the adjustment to kindergarten. Teachers were concerned about students’ adjustment to a more structured academic routines, as well as their ability to get along with peers. Teachers helped students adjust by doing things the students enjoyed, especially at the beginning of the school year. Teachers also worked on adjustment by getting students into a structured routine. They mentioned personalizing spaces to help students feel more comfortable (i.e., putting name/picture on “cubbies”).

The perceived culture within schools also played a role in the transition experience. One caregiver reflected on how the existing school culture can create a sense of exclusion or alienation among families who do not feel privileged. (See quote 4h in Table 4.) Caregivers mentioned that the adjustment was difficult for their children’s emotion regulation (e.g., screaming during drop-off), given that change is often hard for children on the AS. Caregivers were also concerned about their children’s socialization (e.g., getting bullied at school and making friends).

Theme 2: Concerns about the school.

Classroom size.

Caregivers commented that larger classrooms (i.e., more students) can be difficult to manage and may result in some children being neglected. (See quote 3d in Table 3.) For example, a teacher may allow a child to sit on a couch for an extended period and not be engaged if there are many challenging students present. Caregivers indicated that small classrooms allow for more high-quality one-on-one interaction, which, in turn, resulted in more progress in children. For caregivers, an ideal class size was six students with one or two teachers (i.e., in New York, this is most restrictive setting that provides students with maximal support).

Teacher expertise.

Some caregivers mentioned that teachers were easily overwhelmed by children’s behaviors. They were unsure whether teachers were invested in trying to make things work for their child. (See quote 3e in Table 3.) Caregivers wanted to have open conversations about behavior management to feel more comfortable about sending their children to school. Caregivers requested more teacher trainings, as well as teachers who were proactive in getting caregivers engaged in IEP meetings.

Support staff.

Teachers expressed the importance of getting staff (e.g., teacher aides, paraprofessionals) on the “same page” about interventions, stressing the importance of working collaboratively with others and making sure everyone on the team felt included. Teachers with more years of experience had “set” ways and were not always open to change, while newer teachers endorsed more innovative approaches. (See quote 3f in Table 3.) Caregivers wanted to know about all the adults in the classroom (e.g., aides, paraprofessionals, service providers), and what types of supports these additional adults provided (e.g., speech and language therapy).

Research question 2: What are the barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication during the transition to kindergarten?

Four major themes and several sub-themes emerged about the barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication.

Theme 1: Early, frequent, and personalized communication is needed for trust and rapport.

Connecting with families before school starts.

Teachers reported that it was beneficial to initiate communication with caregivers before the first day of school. (See quote 4a in Table 4.) This would give caregivers a chance to express their concerns or ask questions. Some teachers sent a welcome letter to the students’ homes, introducing themselves and offering an opportunity for families to get to know the teacher. Another example included a “meet and greet” session prior to the start of the academic year, which provided families an opportunity to visit the classroom and meet staff.

Understanding the child and their home environment.

Many teachers found it valuable to share information sheets with caregivers. (See quote 4b in Table 4.) Teachers wanted to know about children’s preferences (e.g., toys, food) as well as their hobbies, pets, or the people they interacted with at home. They also emphasized the importance of checking in with caregivers about relevant events in the child’s life, pointing out that being aware of in-home events facilitated more informed teaching. Caregivers confirmed this approach and mentioned receiving phone calls at the beginning of the year, in which teachers encouraged caregivers to send comfort items on the first day of school.

Supporting and engaging with caregivers.

The teachers discussed several approaches for establishing relationships with caregivers. For example, one teacher proactively asked caregivers at the beginning of the year about their preferred modes of communication. Another teacher emphasized the significance of addressing the basic needs of a child, such as secure food and housing. This teacher highlighted the importance of considering external factors that may impact a child’s academic experience. (See quote 4c in Table 4.) Effective collaboration between caregivers and teachers was often hindered by a lack of resources and support from the administration (See quote 4l in Table 4.) Teachers acknowledged the challenge of providing caregivers with extensive information, especially when faced with limited resources and the need to schedule multiple meetings. They recognized that too many details created confusion as opposed to facilitating more effective communication. One caregiver shared a negative experience with a teacher whose style appeared quite “clinical,” suggesting that the teacher was unreceptive to their input, which, in turn, negatively impacted their relationship.

Theme 2: Communication needs to be bi-directional and action oriented.

Communication is important for building rapport and establishing positive caregiver-teacher relationships.

Our participants consistently emphasized the importance of the caregiver-teacher relationship. One caregiver shared how fostering a strong caregiver-teacher relationship led to the teacher consistently providing daily updates on the child’s behavior/activities. Similarly, teachers recognized the value of establishing rapport with caregivers. Both parties stressed the importance of continuous communication throughout the school year. Teachers pointed out instances where the school year began, and they still did not have the caregivers’ contact information.

Teachers consistently discussed how building rapport early is crucial for caregiver-teacher communication, as it allows them to gather and share important information (e.g., allergies, medical conditions, preferences, etc.). Above all, creating and maintaining open communication enabled both parties to establish the necessary levels of trust essential for a smooth and effective school experience. (See quote 4d in Table 4.)

Using multiple modalities to exchange information.

Consistent communication to update caregivers on what is happening was of utmost importance for both participants. Caregivers and teachers reported using various modalities. Some teachers shared that they asked caregivers before the start of the school year about the caregiver’s preferred level and method of communication, while others tended to establish flexible routines for sharing daily updates through platforms like Class Dojo, phone calls, or text messages. (See quote 4e in Table 4.) One teacher shared an experience about calling caregivers at the beginning of the school year to understand the child’s behaviors; they shared that this communication allowed the teacher to seek guidance on the best way to address possible behavioral challenges. Another teacher spoke about sending daily emails to caregivers, which provided a report on how the class went and included information about related services providers.

The communication logs used by teachers often included information about the child’s daily activities and meals; caregivers respond in an open text space. Some teachers and caregivers opted for text messaging, indicating that it was the quickest and most efficient method. For instance, a teacher shared that a caregiver informed her via text in the morning whether the child would be attending school based on how the child slept the night before. In one case, a teacher shared an experience where direct communication with the caregiver (whose child had a concurrent medical issue) enabled them to provide additional information to the medical provider, leading to a more accurate diagnosis. Caregivers valued knowing which activities their children engaged in at school, particularly because it allowed for more meaningful discussions at home. One caregiver mentioned making a concerted effort to use the same language and strategies at home, yielding alignment across home and school contexts.

Theme 3: Multiple layers of external circumstances can impact caregiver-teacher communication.

Contextual factors with caregivers and teachers.

Various contextual factors can significantly hinder effective caregiver-teacher communication. For example, one teacher shared the difficulty of communicating with a caregiver whose family lived in a shelter, as access to the internet was unreliable. (See quote 4f in Table 4.) Caregivers agreed that access to Wi-Fi was important, but also acknowledged that its unpredictability required flexibility from both parties. Further, teachers expressed the challenge of finding time to respond to emails and texts while maintaining a balanced workload.

It was difficult for teachers to meet the needs of caregivers, while also dedicating time and attention to students. Language barriers were identified as another contextual obstacle to effective communication. (See quote 4g in Table 4.) Several teachers attempted to overcome language barriers by using tools like Google Translate or working with interpreters, but these methods did not foster a strong relationship. Teachers also discussed the impact of caregivers’ prior knowledge and experience with autism. Caregivers new to understanding the disability were less likely to know what signs to look for (e.g., delayed language) and what questions to ask (e.g., requesting speech and language therapy).

Experiences with the school and school staff.

Caregivers and teachers encountered challenging situations involving the school administration and staff, which impacted their relationship quality. Several caregivers shared experiences of attending schools characterized by an “elitist” and/or “exclusive” culture. (See quote 4h in Table 4.) In contrast, others expressed frustration over a lack of information regarding how to access services, despite having a positive experience with their child’s teacher.

Several teachers highlighted difficulties when school administration denied the families’ requests or neglected to provide relevant information, which contributed to strained interactions with the caregivers. Language barriers further compounded these challenges. In one case, a teacher recounted a situation in which a caregiver was upset with the teacher because minor issues escalated into more significant problems due to gaps in communication. Miscommunication with related service providers, as well as high staff turnover, created challenges between caregivers and school staff. Moreover, insufficient or delayed communication regarding important matters negatively impacted the caregiver-teacher relationship.

One caregiver shared a distressing experience during an IEP meeting, where she learned months after the fact that her child had been extremely upset most days at school, frequently attempting to leave the classroom. This revelation deeply upset the caregiver, as she was unaware of her child’s distress for an extended period. Moreover, caregivers discussed the frustration of inadequate communication regarding services for their child, which left both the teacher and caregiver feeling lost. (See quote 4i in Table 4.) In one case, an African American caregiver discussed a two-year struggle to obtain assistive technology for their child, despite repeated requests and efforts.

Factors outside of school.

Factors outside of the classroom, specifically busing, presented as a significant challenge for caregivers and teachers. Both expressed concerns about poor communication with bus drivers/monitors. (See quote 4j and 4k in Table 4.) In one case, a child arrived at school with a scratch on his face, and due to a lack of communication between the bus monitor, the teacher, and the caregiver, it was nearly impossible to determine what occurred. This breakdown in communication exemplifies the confusion, frustration, and concern for all parties.

Theme 4: Limited, non-existent, or negative communication is detrimental to caregivers and teachers.

Relaying negative information.

Caregivers and teachers shared difficult experiences where communication was not exchanged or received as desired. One teacher acknowledged the inherent challenge of reporting unfavorable information to caregivers. Teachers unanimously reported that effective collaboration with caregivers was strained when they were unable to answer specific questions, provide the requested information, or offer the necessary services. (See quote 4l in Table 4.)

Limited or non-existent caregiver-teacher communication.

Caregivers shared experiences where their child came home upset in response to incidents that occurred during the school day, yet the teacher remained unaware and uncommunicative. Conversely, teachers reported that they often encountered unresponsive caregivers. For example, one caregiver had inadvertently brought their child to school on a day when classes were canceled because they had not responded to the messages about the school closure. In other cases, caregivers voiced their frustration over the lack of communication from teachers regarding school updates, highlighting the challenges faced by both caregivers and teachers in establishing effective communication. (See quote 4m in Table 4.)

Research question 3: What makes an effective caregiver-teacher meeting during the kindergarten transition?

Effective caregiver-teacher meetings during the transition to kindergarten are achieved through the integration of three primary factors: clear expectations, a team-based approach that considers the perspectives of all parties, and data to align the efforts of both caregivers and teachers.

Theme 1: Clear Expectations.

For many caregivers, school-based meetings during the kindergarten transition provided an opportunity to discuss children’s progress as it related to the IEP. (See quote 5a in Table 5.) Teachers emphasized the importance of providing caregivers with clear meeting expectations. Participants reported that caregiver-teacher meetings often consisted of important elements, such as reporting on student data, relaying information from related service providers, and addressing concerns. Daily communication between caregivers and teachers ensured that caregivers were well-informed, which minimized uncertainties prior to meetings. (See quote 5b in Table 5.) When both parties actively recognized the expectations, the meetings were effective and beneficial for caregivers and teachers.

Table 5.

Themes about effective parent-teacher meetings during the transition process

Theme	Illustrative Quote
Clear expectations	“We don’t have a standing meeting every two weeks, which I actually think is a great idea. But we do talk fairly often, so nothing is a surprise…. We have a daily communication notebook, we email fairly often, and I feel like I really have all of the information that I need ahead of time to think about questions and where we want to go. We were talking about our annual meeting coming up and what we want to set for goals.” [caregiver, 5a]
	“Having the documentation and the daily communication really helped me be prepared for that meeting. I didn’t feel like I was surprised by anything they were saying which helped because good or bad, I don’t want to be surprised, especially some things can make me cry and I want to know ahead of time about what we’re talking about, what we’re getting into before I have a full group or team talking together.” [caregiver, 5b]
Consideration of other’s perspectives via a team- based approach	“I try to remember that the parent has a different perspective and point of view than we do. All the jargon and terms and ways of referring to different skills and students and IEP data might not be familiar or something the parent can easily process. I have a friend who has a son with autism and once she said to me you know the teachers are always so excited about his progress but like I look at other four-year-old’s and I know he’ll never be like them. So, I’m not saying don’t tell the parent. I’m just saying, she had a four-year-old that could barely feed himself, you know, so I think we have to try to be sensitive or aware of that.” [teacher, 5c]
	“When we have meetings, the whole team is present, which I feel is so important because we’re all on the same page and it’s not me wondering, oh well we’re supposed to be doing something with the OT or the speech pathologist and I’m wondering if that communication ever happened. But everyone is there at the meeting and it’s every two weeks and we’re all on the same page about what our next steps are or what our next goal is.” [caregiver, 5d]
Using data to promote alignment	“So, this is exactly what happened, here it is, this is how we take the data, this is what’s going on, this is the intervention. You know if it’s a problem behavior or if it’s just the student, they’re not progressing with the scale. This is what it is, this is what it looks like, this is how we’re handling it, do you have any questions. I’ll try to explain it the best I can and then just make sure they can understand what’s going on. I feel like if they see it, it’s a little easier to understand.” [teacher, 5e]
	“It’s like them showing me some of his work and giving me examples, giving me the version of him that they see, and then me being able to know the version of him that I see at home and trying to kind of maybe get on the same page with certain things so that there is that consistency.” [caregiver, 5f]

Theme 2: Consideration of other’s perspective via a team-based approach.

Teachers emphasized the importance of keeping the caregivers’ perspective in mind to foster a supportive relationship that promoted bidirectional receptiveness, thereby enabling effective collaboration. They stressed the significance of considering the caregivers’ comprehension and understanding of the language used in IEP meetings. Teachers mentioned the importance of making the specialized terminology or jargon accessible to ensure mutual understanding. (See quote 5c in Table 5.) Similarly, caregivers emphasized the significance of being amiable toward teachers during meetings, recognizing the value of maintaining positive rapport. Further, caregivers discussed the importance of approaching meetings with an open mind; overall, they demonstrated an understanding that children may exhibit different behaviors at school compared to their behaviors at home.

The data also highlighted the role of frequent communication between caregivers, teachers, and related service providers in keeping caregivers informed and preventing any surprises during meetings. Meetings were reported to be the most effective when they acknowledged the child’s full support team, which often included many providers. The active involvement of the student’s entire support system ensured the exchange of up-to-date information, thereby facilitating cohesive support for the student. (See quote 5d in Table 5.)

Theme 3: Using data to promote alignment.

Teachers expressed a preference for explaining the strategies used in the classroom to provide context for how caregivers can reinforce them at home. Teachers recognized that caregivers often had negative emotional reactions when they reviewed their child’s general education report card. In such instances, teachers placed great importance on providing additional relevant and more digestible data during their caregiver-teacher meetings. They wanted to ensure that caregivers had a comprehensive view of their child’s progress, especially when the progress was not accurately reflected by report cards. (See quote 5f in Table 5.)

Furthermore, teachers intended for IEP meetings during the kindergarten transition to extend beyond just focusing on the IEP goals and progress toward those goals. They expressed interest in discussing caregivers’ strategies to support their child’s progress at home. For example, one teacher mentioned the “glow and grow” approach, in which they highlighted behavioral and/or academic achievements, followed by a discussion of key areas where the child can further develop, including how caregivers can support that development at home. Caregivers stressed the importance of maintaining open communication with teachers to regularly monitor these areas and intervention approaches at home. (See quote 5e in Table 5.)

Discussion

Strong home-school collaborations, particularly during the transition to kindergarten, are integral for bridging the familial and classroom environments (Tobin et al., 2022). The present study conducted focus groups with diverse caregivers and special education teachers of children on the AS from public schools in the northeast of the United States to understand several aspects of the transition to kindergarten, including the concerns of caregivers and teachers, barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication, and aspects of successful caregiver-teacher meetings during the kindergarten transition. The themes described below are consistent with prior qualitative studies suggesting that communication is vital between caregivers and teachers (O-Keefe & Clark-Pearson, 2019).

Diverse caregiver and teacher concerns during the transition to kindergarten

Our study gathered crucial insights into the transition-related concerns held by diverse caregivers and teachers of children on the AS. By giving voice to marginalized families, our focus groups underscore how participant identities contributed to the experiences of both caregivers and teachers. First, caregivers and teachers were concerned about aspects related to the child (e.g., communicating, eating, toileting) that impacted the child’s daily functioning across home and school. The concerns reported in our study align with previous qualitative research, indicating that caregivers of young children on the AS commonly express apprehension about communication and language, adaptive functioning, social skills, and behavioral and emotional regulation (Pfeiffer et al., 2021; Starr & Foy, 2012). Further, our findings expand upon quantitative studies that have highlighted problem behavior and social interaction as primary concerns for caregivers and teachers of children on the AS (Azad & Mandell, 2016). One noteworthy difference in our study was that teachers commented on how important it was to know about their students’ behaviors (i.e., to implement effective strategies), but sometimes caregivers did not like to disclose information about their children’s behaviors (e.g., tantrums, aggressive behaviors). This finding is in alignment with Greenburg and Winsler’s (2020) study that reported a lack of communication about children’s experiences (e.g., behavior problems) prior to kindergarten.

The themes that emerged from our data signal an underlying anxiety in caregivers, who were worried about the daily functioning and mental health of their children as they enter into a new phase of schooling (Nuske et al., 2019). This was particularly noteworthy given Puccionio et al.’s (2019) finding that the preconceived anxieties and expectations in caregivers may be related to children’s school readiness and achievement. During the transition to kindergarten, families may feel more removed from their role as an integral member of the intervention team once children enter the school system (Kurth et al., 2020; Podvey et al., 2013). In our study, caregivers from marginalized communities expressed concerns about relying on unfamiliar school personnel to manage tasks such as toileting or transporting children. These concerns were particularly anxiety-provoking for caregivers of non-verbal children, which highlights the unique challenges faced by underrepresented families of children on the AS.

Caregivers and teachers voiced concerns related to the school environment, particularly about teacher expertise and classroom size, with a heightened emphasis on the latter. Prior research has demonstrated that teachers’ knowledge and expertise on autism is an important factor for caregivers’ overall satisfaction of their children’s education (Starr & Foy, 2012). Notably, Kurth et al. (2020) reported that caregivers’ satisfaction with their children’s school experience was directly linked to the school staff’s knowledge about autism, highlighting the critical role of autism-specific training for school personnel. Unlike previous studies focused on non-AS children, our research specifically highlights the bidirectional relationship between caregivers and teachers. It demonstrated the specialized knowledge and experience required for children on the AS, offering practical implications for improving educational strategies and caregiver support to address the unique needs of this population. Unfortunately, teacher pre-service programs and professional developments for practicing teachers provide limited training on developmental disabilities in general, and autism in particular (e.g., related to evidence-based practices). Some teacher preparation programs only address 40% of the evidence-based practices for children on the AS (Hsiao & Sorensen Petersen, 2019). As a result, teachers often do not report high confidence in their ability to implement evidence-based practices and address important issues for children on the AS (Brock et al., 2014), which can be exacerbated when the classroom size is large.

Additionally, caregivers and teachers reported concerns about the multiple support staff (e.g., aides, paraprofessionals) in the classroom. Prior research indicates that collaboration between special education teachers and the support staff, as well as a positive dynamic between them, can influence the quality of services provided to children on the AS (Biggs et al., 2016). Indeed, desired outcomes are more likely to occur when teachers and support staff are working together (Biggs et al., 2016). It is likely that teachers would benefit from classroom management training that also includes strategies to manage multiple adults, as effective collaboration with support staff is becoming a growing aspect of providing effective special education services to students on the AS (Giangreco et al., 2010). Our study expands on prior work by noting differences between caregivers and teachers in terms of their concerns about the school. More specifically, caregivers had concerns about the classroom size, teacher expertise, and support staff, while teachers only expressed concerns about the support staff.

Barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication during the transition to kindergarten

The focus group discussions revealed important barriers and facilitators to caregiver-teacher communication. Four themes emerged from our focus groups: 1) Early, frequent, and personalized communication between caregivers and teachers is needed for trust and rapport; 2) Communication should be bi-directional and action-oriented; 3) There are multiple layers of external circumstances (e.g., access to WIFI, busing, living in shelters) that can impact communication between diverse caregivers and teachers; and 4) Limited, non-existent, or negative communication is detrimental to caregivers and teachers. Our findings suggest that caregivers are yearning to connect with their children’s teacher using a variety of methods (e.g., phone calls, texts, online platforms) even before the school year begins. However, it is important to note that marginalized families may not have the resources (e.g., unlimited data plans) to access these communication modalities. Nonetheless, when teachers introduced themselves and share what the classroom is like prior to the kindergarten transition, this information relieved a lot of anxieties in caregivers. This is consistent with prior studies, indicating that teachers like to connect with caregivers early in the school year (Besi & Sakellariou, 2019). Personalizing communication (e.g., targeting children’s likes/dislikes) sets the foundation for a bi-directional and action-oriented caregiver-teacher relationship, where caregivers feel comfortable asking questions and sharing aspects of the home environment, especially when caregivers and teachers have different sociocultural characteristics, like in our study. When a positive relationship is established early, caregivers, especially those from diverse backgrounds, may be more likely to discuss challenges (e.g., children’s problem behaviors, barriers such as language and conflicting work schedules; Coba-Rodriquez et al., 2020) and teachers may feel more comfortable sharing difficult information (e.g., a tough day for children).

Our findings align with the defining characteristics of caregiver-teacher relationship quality, which emphasizes a partnership approach (i.e., “joining”) and communication (Azad et al., 2016, 2021; Leenders et al., 2019; Lekli & Kaloti, 2015; Ruble et al., 2019; Vickers & Minke, 1995). Unfortunately, special education teachers receive very little training on how to work with caregivers, which, in turn, has a negative impact on caregivers’ motivation to collaborate (Reinke et al., 2016), and subsequently children’s academic outcomes (Kim et al., 2013). Many special education teachers complete their preparation programs without fully understanding how to facilitate caregiver involvement, advocacy, and legal remedies that are available to caregivers. Notably, communicating with caregivers, particularly caregivers with characteristics different from teachers, including how to manage conflicts and complex power dynamics, were major weaknesses when transitioning from pre-service and in-service programs to actual classroom dynamics (Strassfeld, 2019). These relationship dynamics are not addressed in caregiver trainings programs either, leaving teachers and caregivers without effective relationship building tools. Our findings emphasize the importance of integrating effective relationship-building tools tailored to the unique needs of diverse caregivers and educators in the autism community. By addressing these often-overlooked caregiver-teacher relationship dynamics in both teacher and caregiver training programs, we highlight a critical area for improvement in special education.

Components of successful caregiver-teacher meetings during the transition to kindergarten

In addition to addressing caregiver-teacher concerns and exploring the barriers and facilitators to effective caregiver-teacher communication, our focus groups highlighted the key factors for successful caregiver-teacher meetings during the kindergarten transition. Three themes emerged: setting clear expectations, adopting a team-based approach by considering the other person’s perspective, and using data to promote home-school alignment. These themes are valuable for preparing for any caregiver-teacher meeting, including conferences and IEP meetings, but are particularly important during the transition process, as this may set the stage for subsequent meetings. Our findings expand on prior research by specifically identifying these themes as critical factors in the context of meetings between diverse caregivers and teachers of children on the AS. They underscore the importance of a structured approach to caregiver-teacher interactions, aligning with previous recommendations that urge caregivers to compile a list of goals and request written documentation (e.g., regarding assessments and goals) in advance of meetings. Additionally, our research supports the call for schools to engage in a team-based approach when working with caregivers (Sanderson, 2023; Sanderson & Rojas, 2023).

The themes identified for successful caregiver-teacher meetings are critical factors because many school-based meetings, such as those regarding IEPs, have become depersonalized meetings that focus on paperwork and compliance rather than incorporating caregivers’ input (Kurth et al., 2019, 2020; Zeitlin & Curcic, 2014). Unfortunately, this negative experience is exacerbated for particular marginalized groups, such as Latino families (Grace & Gerdes, 2019; Wolfe & Durán, 2014) who may hold a culturally based definition of education that conflicts with teachers’ expectations for involvement (Grace & Gerdes, 2019). Additionally, caregivers of children with higher developmental risk often report less family involvement and poorer relationships with their child’s teacher (Garbacz et al., 2016). Indeed, families with intersecting identities (e.g., families with limited English proficiency, lower SES, and more severe child needs) may have the most challenges with “traditional” educational involvement, but they may still be involved in other ways. For example, Latina mothers from low-income backgrounds reported engaging in direct teaching, promoting reading, and embedding learning into daily activities to prepare their preschoolers transitioning to kindergarten (Coba-Rodriguez et al., 2020). African American mothers from urban, low-income backgrounds supported their children’s kindergarten transition through one-on-one conversations with their preschoolers (Jarrett & Coba-Rodriguez, 2018). Indeed, setting clear expectations, having a team-based approach, and using data to promote alignment is critical for all families.

Our findings align and expand upon a recent focus group study that aimed to understand caregivers’ and teachers’ perspectives on school readiness and the transition to primary school for children on the AS (Chen et al., 2020). While their research underscores the significant role of both caregivers and teachers in ensuring children’s preparedness for school by establishing consistent routines and providing necessary support and resources, our study expands on their work by identifying three critical themes specific to caregiver-teacher interactions and meetings for children on the AS. These themes provide a more detailed and structured approach to enhancing home-school collaboration between diverse caregivers and teachers.

Limitations, implications, and future directions

There are limitations to note about the present study. First, given the characteristics of our sample (i.e., primarily English-speaking caregivers and public-school special education teachers in the northeast), the themes that emerged from our focus groups may not generalize to families with limited English proficiency or general education teachers who teach in rural settings outside of the northeast.

Another limitation of this study is that autism diagnoses were based solely on caregiver reports, without verification through record examination or direct assessment. However, using caregiver reports is a common and practical approach in research settings where access to detailed records or direct assessments may be limited. This method also aligns with real-world clinical practices, where caregiver observations and reports are crucial for screening.

Third, our focus groups primarily included mothers, which is like a majority of other educational studies. It would be interesting to obtain the perspective of fathers or other caregivers to understand their primary concerns and what factors are important for them in home-school collaboration with special education teachers during the kindergarten transition.

Fourth, we focused on home and school settings, but many studies have also included the perspective of early intervention providers or preschool teachers to provide a comprehensive view of the transition process (Chen et al., 2020).

Fifth, we did not examine how characteristics of the child or environment (e.g., support from paraprofessionals or related service providers) may have impacted caregiver and teacher reports. A recent study suggested that although interventions targeting home-school collaboration have an impact on joining and communication (i.e., aspects of caregiver-teacher relationship quality), the effect was more pronounced for children with externalizing problems and in rural communities (Smith et al., 2022).

Sixth, we did not collect information on what types of settings children with AS were transitioning from. It is likely that caregivers, teachers, and children have different experiences if they are transitioning from pre-kindergarten to kindergarten classrooms in the same school/district versus if families are coming from many different preschools into the same kindergarten class.

Despite these limitations, the present study has important implications for educational leadership tasked with developing policy and practice. One re-occurring trend that emerged from our focus groups was the importance of trust — that is, gaining trust from diverse caregivers. Indeed, the literature has shown that trust is foundational for caregiver involvement and, not surprisingly, associated with student learning and behavior (Garbacz et al., 2016). It was clear from our data that diverse caregivers needed to trust unfamiliar teachers to send their children to school, especially those children who were non-verbal and/or those who needed assistance with toileting. Unfortunately, there is a longstanding history of mistrust of professionals from caregivers of children on the AS (Pham et al., 2019), as well as from racial/ethnic minority families (Levin et al., 2021). In our sample (42% reporting Black as their race, 42% reporting Hispanic/Latino as their ethnicity; 25% on Medicaid), many caregivers reported experiences with schools characterized as “elitist” and/or “exclusive,” which may contribute to their mistrust. Indeed, a recent study by Besi and Sakellariou (2019) reported that caregivers’ level of trust in teachers is one of the most important factors for a successful transition to kindergarten. Early, frequent, and personalized communication may be one solution to establish trust between diverse caregivers and teachers (Besi & Sakellariou, 2019). Prior studies focusing on home-school collaborations with low-income and ethnically/racially diverse families have included several strategies (e.g., individual meetings, classrooms visits) to facilitate the kindergarten transition (Garber et al., 2023). The results from this study expand upon this work by suggesting that interventions targeting home-school collaborations should also consider trust as a target area to address.

Another implication is the importance of taking a tailored, strength-based approach to facilitate family engagement, and subsequently a smooth transition to kindergarten (Reinke et al., 2016). Rooted in ecological systems theory’s focus on learning environments as the foundation for child development (Bronfenbrenner, 1988, 1995), our recommendation is for public elementary schools to embrace family-centered models commonly used in early childhood education, such as “ready schools” where caregivers are recognized as children’s first teachers (Clark & Zygmunt-Fillwalk, 2008; Vartuli & Winter, 1989), and early childhood special education programs (e.g., publicly funded early intervention programs; Movahedazarhouligh, 2021). These initiatives emphasize a family-centered approach, characterized by open communication and mutual respect, aligning with the themes that emerged from our focus groups (LaBarbera, 2017). Family-centered models in early education (e.g., ready schools) stem from W.K. Kellogg Foundation’s 2001 Supporting Partnerships to Assure Ready Kids (SPARK) initiative to support school readiness nationwide (Curtis & Simons, 2008). Effective implementation may involve training and re-training teachers to partner with families, while also empowering diverse caregivers to assert their unique voices, ultimately optimizing outcomes for children on the AS.