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. 2025 Nov 21;20(1):104. doi: 10.5334/gh.1493

Figure 1.

Study design and workflow. Schematic overview of the study design. Retinal traits (10 retinal layers and 25 retinal phenotypes from UK Biobank) and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs, including HF, CHD, HBP, AF, CA, MI, and stroke from the Finland R12 dataset) were analyzed. Linkage disequilibrium score regression (LDSC) was used to evaluate genetic correlations, followed by Mendelian randomization (MR) to infer causal effects, with sensitivity analyses included. Cross-sectional validation was performed in clinical cohorts to test associations between retinal features, circulating biomarkers, and CVDs

Study design and workflow. Schematic overview of the study design. Retinal traits (10 retinal layers and 25 retinal phenotypes from UK Biobank) and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs, including HF, CHD, HBP, AF, CA, MI, and stroke from the Finland R12 dataset) were analyzed. Linkage disequilibrium score regression (LDSC) was used to evaluate genetic correlations, followed by Mendelian randomization (MR) to infer causal effects, with sensitivity analyses included. Cross-sectional validation was performed in clinical cohorts to test associations between retinal features, circulating biomarkers, and CVDs.