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. 2025 Nov 21;20(1):104. doi: 10.5334/gh.1493

Figure 3.

Causal associations between retinal traits and cardiovascular diseases. Forest plots of MR analyses evaluating the causal effects of retinal structural traits (e.g., ELM–ISOS thickness, GC–IPL thickness, RNFL thickness, INL thickness, RPE thickness, and overall macular thickness) on cardiometabolic outcomes. Red squares represent effect sizes (OR), horizontal bars show 95% CIs. Significant results (FDR < 0.05) are marked in red. The findings indicate specific retinal thinning patterns are causally related to CVD susceptibility

Causal associations between retinal traits and cardiovascular diseases. Forest plots of MR analyses evaluating the causal effects of retinal structural traits (e.g., ELM–ISOS thickness, GC–IPL thickness, RNFL thickness, INL thickness, RPE thickness, and overall macular thickness) on cardiometabolic outcomes. Red squares represent effect sizes (OR), horizontal bars show 95% CIs. Significant results (FDR < 0.05) are marked in red. The findings indicate specific retinal thinning patterns are causally related to CVD susceptibility.